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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/compendiumofanci01kern 



A COMPENDIUM 



ANCIENT AND MODERN 

HISTORY; 

WITH 

QUESTIONS, 

ADAPTED TO THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES J ALSO 

AN APPENDIX, 

CONTAINING 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE *, THE CONSTITU- 
TION OF THE UNITED STATES ; A BIOGRAPHICAL 
SKETCH OF EMINENT PERSONAGES ; WITH 
| A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF REMARK- 

ABLE EVENTS, DISCOVERIES, IM- 
PROVEMENTS, &C, FROM 
^THE CREATION, TO 
THE YEAR 1840. 



BY M. J. KERNEY. 

3$ u 1 1 i m o r t : 

PUBLISHED BY OWEN, KURTZ & CO. 

NO. 146, BALTIMORE STREET, THIRD DOOR 
EAST OF CALVERT STREET. 

1845. 



THE LIBRARY 
or CONGRESS 

WASHINGTON 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1845, 

By M. J. Kernet, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Maryland. 






6 1 1 3 



Printed at the Publication Rooms, 

No. 7, S. Liberty st., Baltimore. 



PREFACE. 



In presenting this Compendium to the public, the author would beg 
leave to make a few brief remarks. The great utility to be derived from 
a work of this nature, will be evident on the least reflection. To the 
man, whose time is limited, it will afford an opportunity of becoming ac- 
quainted with the most important events, the manners, customs and insti- 
tutions of various nations, withont the labor of reading more extensive 
works. On the other hand, it will prove highly useful to those, who 
have passed through a course of historical study ; serving as an expedi- 
tious means of refreshing the memory, by recalling events which time 
had partially obliterated. In some respects, the Compendium possesses 
an advantage over the more copious history. In the latter, the memory 
is frequently overcharged with a multiplicity of circumstances, which 
often obscure the most important facts ; while in the former, the most im- 
portant events are only presented, and easily retained. 

A number of works of this nature, have already appeared, and many 
of them highly approved. Yet in point of arrangement, and in the gen- 
eral matter of contents, it would seem that some improvement might still 
be made. The division of history into periods, a system which has been 
followed by many respectable historians, would appear upon the whole, 
rather to obscure, than aid the memory. The author, therefore, has 
thought proper to pursue the history of the various nations and institu- 
tions, by preserving an unbroken series of events in regular succession, 
from their earliest authentic records to their decline or to the present time. 

In treating his subjects, it has been the studied design of the author, to 
avoid all sarcastic remarks, and all useless invectives; making in general, 
no further use of original comments, than merely necessary to give a clear 
view of the facts related. By thus curtailing observations, which fre- 
quently make up a material portion of works of this nature, he has been 
enabled to insert a much greater amount of historical matter, than is usual- 
ly met with in the same number of pages. In speaking of religion, the 
most respectful language has been employed ; and no expression has been 
used, that could, in the remotest degree, wound the feelings of the pro- 
fessors of any creed. 



IV PREFACE. 

In order to render this Compendium more valuable to the private reader, 
and at the same time more useful to the student of history, the author has 
thought proper to add an appendix, containing the Declaration of Indepen- 
dence and ihe Constitution of the United States, thus placing these docu- 
ments, so interesting in themselves, and so important in their nature, par- 
ticularly the Constitution, to every American citizen, within the reach of 
every individual. Few indeed, in the community have ever seen or read' 
a copy of the Constitution, owing to the scarcity of books which contain 
it. It would seem, moreover, a desirable object to render the youth of 
our country, early acquainted with the principles of the Constitution. 
This, it is hoped, will be accomplished by placing it in a work designed 
for the use of schools and academies, with questions adapted to it, to facil- 
itate its study. Biographical notices are at all times interesting and in- 
structive. But as the introduction of these notices in the body of the 
work, would too much interrupt that close connection of events, so im- 
portant in a compendium of history, the author has added a short biograph- 
ical sketch of distinguished personages. By this means, he has been enabled 
to notice the lives and actions of many eminent characters, who could not 
otherwise, have been conveniently introduced. The Chronological Table, 
which fixes the dates of all important events, discoveries, &c, will be 
found both interesting and useful, as it will often save hours of labor and 
anxious research. 

In a work which professes to be a compilation, and which from its na- 
ture and design, must consist of materials chiefly selected from the wri- 
tings of others, it is scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which the 
author has made of the labors of his predecessors. He has in general, 
omitted the names of the authors from whom he has made his selections, 
because he frequently thought proper to change their style, and alter their 
language, in order to suit the connection, and adopt them to the nature 
of the Compendium. 

The author is well aware that much improvement might be made in the 
present edition, and regrets exceedingly, that several errors will be 
found upon its pages, but generally of a typographical character. But 
those who are acquainted with the arduous task of passing the first edition 
of a work of this nature through the press, will readily overlook its many 
imperfections. In orthography, Webster has generally been followed as 
the standard. 

If the present Compendium will be found, in the remotest degree, to 
benefit any portion of the community, or tend to facilitate the acquisition 
of historical knowledge, the most ardent desires of the author will be 
realized. 

M. J. K. 



CONTENTS 



Page. 
Sources and Division of History, ----- 9 

Creation of the World, - - - - - - -11 

Deluge, ---------- 13 

Tower of Babel, -------- 14 

Dispersion of Mankind, ------- 15 

Assyria and Babylon, -- - ----15 

Persia, ---------- 19 

Persian Antiquities, --------20 

Phoenicians, --------- 22 

Egypt, — 

Section I. 23 

II. Manners and Customs of the Egyptians, - - 26 
III. Pyramids,, Labyrinth, Lake of Masris, - - 28 

Greece, — 

Section I. 30 

II. The Fabulous and Heroic Ages, - - 31 

III. Republic of Sparta, 33 

IV. Republic of Athens, ----- 35 
V. From the invasion of Greece by the Persians, to 

the Peloponnesian war, 37 

VI. From the beginning of Peloponnesian War, to the 

reign of Philip of Maccdon, - - - 43 

VII. Philip of Macedon. The Exploits and Death of ' 
Alexander, ------_ 46 

VIII. From the Death of Alexander, to the subjugation 

of Greece by the Romans, - - - - 51 

IX. Grecian Antiquities, - - - - x - 54 

Philosophy, _--.-.--_ 54 

Seven Wise Men, ---------55 

Council of the Amphictyons, ------ 55 

Public Games, ---------56 

Literature, ------ __ 56 

Arts, ----------- 57 

Private and Domestic Life, __-.-_ 53 

Origin of Tragedy, - - - - - - - -59 

Rome, — 

Section I. From the foundation of the city to the expulsion 

of Tarquin, ------ 61 

II. From the abolition of the regal power to the first 

Punic War, 66 



Vi CONTENTS. 

Page, 
Section III. From the first Punic War to the conquest of Greece, 74 

IV. The sedition of the Gracchi ; Civil Wars ; Conspir- 

acy of Catiline, ------ 81 

V. From the first Triumvirate to the Dissolution of 

the Commonwealth, ----- 84 

VI. Rome under the Emperors, - - - 92 

VII. From Nerva, to Constantine the Great, - - 97 
VIII. From the accession of Constantine, to the extinc- 
tion of the Western Empire, _ _ _ 102 
Roman Antiquities, -------- 107 

Jewish History, — 

Section I. The history of the Jews, until their deliverance from 

Egypt, - 112 

II. The Government of the Judges ; the Regal Gov- 
ernment ; the restoration of the Jews from cap- 
tivity, - 118 

III. From the restoration to the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem by the Romans, - - - - - 

Antiquities, ---------- 

Manners and Customs, - - - - - - 

Mythology of Ancient Nations, ------ 

Modern History, - - - - - - -.'..-■ 

Middle Ages, — 

Sixth Age, --_._--. 

Seventh Age, ------- 

Eighth Age, - - - 

Ninth Age, -------- 

Tenth Age, -------- 

Eleventh Age, - - 

Twelfth Age, - 

Thirteenth Age, ------- 

Fourteenth Age, -___--_ 

Monasteries, -------- 

Saracen Empire, -------- 

Feudal System, - - - - 

Crusades, ---------- 

First Crusade, ------- 

Second " -------- 

Third " . - . ' - . -• 

Fourth " 

Fifth " - - 161 

Sixth " - - 162 

Seventh and Eighth Crusade, - - - - - 163 
The effects of the Crusades, - - - - - 163 

Chivalry, - - 166 

Tournaments and Jousts, -.- - - - -168 

The Origin of Duels, 169 

France, — 

Section I. Foundation of the Monarchy ; Merovingian and 

Carlovingian kings, - - - - - 172 

II. Capetian kings, ------ 175 

III. Branch of Valois, 178 

IV. From the accession of Louis XII., to the reign of 

Henry III., 182 

V. House of Bourbon ; from Henry IV., to the death 

of Louis XV., - - 187 



CONTENTS. VU 

Page. 
Section VI. Louis XVI. ; Revolution ; Buonaparte ; Louis 

XVIII. ; Charles X., 192 

England, — 

Section I. From the conquest by the Romans, A. C. 55, to 

A. D. 827, 204 

II. The foundation of the Monarchy, - - 209 

III. Norman Family ; William, the Conqueror; William 

II. ; Henry 1. ; Stephen of Blois, - - - 213 

IV. Family of Plantagenet ; Henry II. ; Richard I. ; 

John ; Henry III. ; Edward I. ; Edward II. ; Ed- 
ward III. ; Richard II., - 215 
V. Branch of Lancaster ; Henry IV. ; Henry V. ; Hen- 
ry VI., 225 

VI. Branch of York ; Edward IV. ; Edward V. ; Rich- 

ard III., -------- 228 

VII. Tudor Family ; Henry VII. ; Henry VIII. ; Edward 

VI. ; Mary ; Elizabeth, - - - - 231 

VIII. Stuart Family ; James I. ; Charles I. ; the Com- 
monwealth ; Cromwell ; Charles II. ; James II. ; 
William and Mary ; Anne, - - - 239 

IX. Branch of Brunswick ; George I. ; George II. ; 

George III. ; George IV. ; William IV., - 250 

Scotland, — 

Section I ---- 254 

II. House of Stuarts, 256 

Mary Queen of Scots, 262 

Ireland, — 

Section I. 269 

II. The invasion of Ireland by Henry II., - - 274 
III. Insurrection of 1798, 284 

The Society of United Irishmen, - - - 285 

The Orange Association, ----- 285 

The Legislative Union with Great Britain, - 288 

Spain, — ...-..- 290 

The Inquisition, ----- 293 

Portugal, ------- 295 

Poland, ------- 296 

Russia, - - - - - - - 298 

Prussia, - - - - - - 301 

Germany, ------- 303 

Sweden, ------- 307 

Denmark, - - - - - - * . - 309 

Netherlands and Holland, - - - - 310 

Italy, . - - - - - - - 310 

Turkey, -- - - - - - 316 

Modern Greece, ------ 318 

America, — 

Section I. Discovery of the Country, - 326 

Conquest of Mexico, - - - - 332 

Conquest of Peru, - 333 

The Manners and Customs of the Indians, - 334 

II. Settlement of Virginia and New York, - 336 

III. New England Settlements, - 342 
Maryland, ----- 348 
Pennsylvania, ----- 350 
Delaware, - - - - 351 



Page. 
Section III. New Jersey, - - - - - 351 

The Carolinas, - - - - 351 

Georgia, - 352 

IV. The French War; Conquest of Canada; Oppres- 
sive measures towards the Colonies ; Commence- 
ment of hostilities ; Battle of Lexington ; Bun- 
ker Hill ; Declaration of Independence, - 353 
United States, — 

Section V. The War of the Revolution continued, - 362 

VI. The three years 1 War, - - - 376 

The Christian Church, — 

Section I. From the birth of Christ to the triumph of Chris- 
tianity, - - - - - 384 
II. From the triumph of Christianity, to the Reforma- 
tion, - 392 
III. From the Reformation to the present time. 



APPENDIX 



The Declaration of Independence with the names of the 

Signers, ------- 406 

The Constitution of the United States, with the names of the 

Delegates to the Federal Convention, - - - 410 

Biography of Distinguished Personages, - 427 

The Invention of the Art of Printing, • - - 438 

Chronological Tables, ------ 454 

Questions, - - - - - - -473 



SOURCES 



DIVISION OF HISTORY. 



History is a written narrative of past events, in regular 
succession. The principal sources of history, independent 
of authentic records, are those which follow: 

1. Oral tradition, which existed before the invention of 
the art of writing. From this source, Herodotus, one of 
the earliest profane historians, derived the greater part of 
the facts which he relates. 

2. Historical poems, such as the Iliad and Odyssey of 
Homer, which comprised the only history of the heroic 
ages of Greece. 

3. Visible monuments and ruins; such as the Pyramids 
of Egypt, the ruins of cities, as those of Balbec, Pal- 
myra, and Persepolis, which serve to give an idea of the 
power, opulence and taste of those by whom they were 
built. 

4. Coins and medals have always been of great atility 
in illustrating history, and of giving some insight into the 
manners and customs of those nations to which they be- 
longed. 

5. Inscriptions on marbles. The most celebrated col- 
lection of marbles are those in the University of Oxford, 
in England, called the Arundelian Marbles, from the Earl 
of Arundel, by whom they were brought from Greece. Of 
these inscriptions, the most important is, the Chronicle of 
Paros, which contains the chronology of Athens from the 
time of Cecrops, A. C. 1582, to A. C, 264. 

6. History is divided into Ancient and Modern. An- 
cient History embraces the history of the world from the 
creation to the Christian era. Modern History comprises 

1 



10 SOURCES AND DIVISION OF HISTORY. 

all the time subsequent to that period. There is however, 
a difference of opinion with regard to the line, which sep- 
arates Ancient and Modern history. Some historians adopt 
the Christian era for the commencement of Modern his- 
tory ; others take the subversion of the Western Empire 
of the Romans, A. D. 476, while others again carry it down 
as far as the establishment of the New Empire of the West, 
under Charlemagne, A. D. 800. 

7. Ancient history is distinguished by the four great Em- 
pires of Assyria or Babylon, Persia, Greece or Macedon, 
and Rome, which successively rose and declined. Mod- 
ern history, is distinguished by the invention of gunpow- 
der, and consequently a change in the mode of war; the 
discovery of America, the invention of the art of printing ; 
the revival of letters, the reformation, and many improve- 
ments in the social condition of man. The middle ages, 
embrace a period of time extending from the subversion of 
the Western Empire of the Romans, to that of the Eastern 
Empire, and are characterized by the rise and progress of 
Mohammedanism and the Saracen Empire, the prevalence 
of the Feudal system, Crusades, and Chivalry. 

8. History is also divided into Sacred and Profane, Ec- 
clesiastical and Civil. Sacred history, is that which is con- 
tained in the Scriptures. Profane history is the history of 
ancient pagan nations. The earliest profane historian, is 
Herodotus, who is styled the father of history. He com- 
piled his works about 445 years A. C, and extends his ac- 
counts back as far as the year 713 before the Christian era. 
Ecclesiastical history, is the history of the Church of Christ, 
from the promulgation of Christianity to the present time. 
Civil history, is the history of the various nations, states 
and empires that have appeared in the world, and exhibits 
a view of their wars, revolutions and changes. For a pe- 
riod of nearly three thousand three hundred years subse- 
quent to the creation of the world, there exists no docu- 
ments, with the exception of the Scriptures, that really de- 
serve the name of history. Our knowledge therefore, of 
the early history of the world, the first settlements of the 
different parts of it, the primitive state of society, and the 
progress of mankind towards civilization, is extremely lim- 
ited. 



11 



THE CREATION. 

The Creation of the World; Deluge: Tower of Babel; 
Dispersion of Mankind. 

1. From the sacred Scriptures alone, we are enabled to 
derive the authentic history of the creation of the world. 
According to the account handed down to us by those sa- 
cred annals, respecting that remarkable event, it appears 
that about five thousand eight hundred and forty-nine years 
from the present time, God called this visible universe into 
being, by the word of his power; that a determined length 
of time was occupied in the completion of the work, the 
various parts being produced in six successive days ; that 
on the last of the six days, God formed the body of man 
from the dust of the earth, and breathed into it an immortal 
soul, and constituted him lord of the animal creation, and 
finally, that God, seeing that all his work was good, rested 
on the seventh day, which he sanctified as a day to be de- 
voted to religious solemnities. 

2. The first woman, was formed from a rib, taken from 
the side of the man while in a deep sleep, and given to 
him as a companion ; in this manner was the sacred insti- 
tution of marriage ordained by the Creator himself. Adam 
and Eve, the names of the first of the human family, were 
placed by the Deity, immediately after their creation, in a 
terrestrial paradise, called the garden of Eden. They were 
permitted to use all the fruits of the garden, with exception 
of the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil ; 
this restriction was laid upon them as a trial of their obe- 
dience, and the penalty of death was threatened if they 
should transgress the command of their Creator. 

3. Various opinions have been entertained with respect 
to the situation of the garden of Eden ; but following the ac- 
count given of it in the Old Testament, and judging from 
the well known names of the Tigris and Euphrates, we 
may determine with some probability, that it was situated 
in or near Mesopotamia. It is evident that it was east of 
Canaan or of the wilderness where Moses wrote his sacred 
history, though the precise spot cannot now be ascer- 
tained. 

4. The innocence and felicity of our first parents, were 
of short duration. Scarcely had they began to enjoy the 
delights of paradise, when the woman, deceived by th_e 



1% AftTE&lLtTVtAftS. 

subtlety of Satan, in the form of a serpent, plucked and eat 
of the forbidden fruit, and at the same time presented it to 
her husband, who likewise followed her example. The ef- 
fect was decisive : the whole face of creation was changed. 
Death was introduced, and from that moment our first pa- 
rents with all their posterity, became liable to dissolution, 
and subjected to all the moral and physical evils which 
have afflicted the human family to the present time. God 
called them to an account, and his awful voice filled their 
souls with dread. 

5. Adam being severely reprimanded for his disobedi- 
ence, began to exculpate himself upon the weak pretense 
that the woman had first offered him the fruit. The wo- 
man, hearing herself thus accused, sought to remove the 
blame from herself upon the serpent, that had deceived 
her. But in a formal violation of his precepts, God ad- 
mits of no excuse; he cursed the serpent as the first author 
of the sin, condemning it to creep upon the earth and eat 
the dust thereof; but for fear that man should despair under 
the weight of his afflictions, he promised him a future de- 
liverer, declaring that the seed of the woman would event- 
ually crush the serpent's head ; a declaration which refer- 
red in its full extent, to the person of Jesus Christ, the 
Saviour of mankind. Adam and Eve were then banished 
from paradise, and a Cherubim with a flaming sword, placed 
at the east of the garden to prevent all access to that once 
happy abode. 

6. In the first year of the world, four thousand and four 
years B. C, Cain was born, and the following year is as- 
signed for the birth of Abel. The two brothers not only 
followed different occupations, but possessed very different 
characters. On a certain occasion, as they were both pre- 
senting their offerings to God, the offering of Abel was ac- 
cepted, while that of Cain was rejected. This circum- 
stance excited the indignation of Cain, who, availing him- 
self of the opportunity as they were alone in the field, rose 
up against his brother and slew him. On account of this 
unnatural crime, Cain was immediately punished ; God 
called him to a solemn reckoning, and after hearing with 
bitter anguish his doom pronounced, that he should be a 
fugitive and a vagabond on earth, we are told that he went 
out from the presence of the Lord and dwelt in the land of 
Nod east of Eden. 

7. After a brief account of Cain and his family, the sa- 
cred historian presents us with a short but interesting ac- 



THE DELUGE. 13 

count of Enoch, who is said to have walked with God for 
the space of three hundred years, and at the expiration of 
that time, to have been taken up to heaven without passing 
through the scene of death. The sacred genealogy is car- 
ried down to the time of Noah and his sons, and the date 
of the life of each of the patriarchs is minutely given. The 
descendants of Seth, at first continued pure and uncorrupt, 
at length by intermarriage with the descendants of Cain, 
they became like the rest of mankind, exceedingly degen- 
erate. 

8. The Deity justly provoked by the enormous degener- 
acy of his creatures, determined to destroy by a universal 
deluge, the race of man, together with the whole animal 
creation, except a small remnant destined again tore-people 
the earth. From this tremendous sentence which God had 
pronounced, Noah and his family, eight in number, were 
the only persons who were exempted from it. Connected 
with this intimation which Noah had received concerning 
the approaching deluge, were several particular instructions 
relative to his deliverance. He was ordered to build a 
large vessel, called the ark, according to the divine direc- 
tions. 

9. The ark was built of gopher wood, which is suppos- 
ed to be the same as the cypress. Its form was that of an 
oblong square, with a flat bottom and a sloping roof, eleva- 
ted one cubit in the middle; it consisted of three stories, 
and was divided into separate apartments. When comple- 
ted, Noah entered the ark together with his wife, his three 
sons and their wives, taking with him every species of 
beasts, birds and reptiles by pairs and by sevens, according 
to the divine command. Immediately after this, the foun- 
tains of the deep were broken up and the windows of hea- 
ven were opened ; during forty days and forty nights, with- 
out intermission, the waters were poured upon the surface 
of the globe. In the meantime, the ark rose with the ris- 
ing flood and rode triumphant over the raging waters, 
which soon buried beneath its swelling waves all living 
creatures without distinction. 

10. When the waters began to subside, the ark rested on 
the top of Mount Ararat, in Armenia, and after it had re- 
mained there for four months, Noah being anxious to know 
whether they had disappeared from the earth, opened the 
window of the ark and sent forth a crow, which did not 
return ; after this he sent forth a dove, which not finding 
a place on which to rest its feet, again returned to the ark. 



14 TOWER OF BABEL. 

At the end of seven days, the dove was sent out a second 
time, and in the evening returned bearing 1 in its beak a 
green olive branch, which Noah joyfully received, not only 
as a proof that the flood had abated, but likewise as a sign 
that God was reconciled with the world. 

11. By the command of God, Noah then went out of 
the ark with his family, taking with him all the living crea- 
tures, after they had been shut up for the space of a year, 
and immediately afterwards he built an altar and offered 
sacrifice to the Lord. God blessed Noah and his sons, 
and made a covenant with him, engaging no more to de- 
stroy the earth with a flood, in confirmation of which, he 
set his bow in the heavens. Shortly after this period, 
Noah engaged in pursuits of husbandry, and having been 
intoxicated with the juice of the grape, was discovered in 
this situation by his youngest son Ham, who with indecent 
levity, informed his brothers of the circumstance ; they 
however, treated their father with the highest degree of 
filial respect. 

Noah as soon as he awoke 5 being informed of all that 
had passed, condemned the action of Ham, pronounced a 
curse upon his posterity, declaring that they should be the 
slaves to the slaves of his brethren, while at the same time 
he highly commended the piety of Shem and Japhet. 

12. The descendants of Noah soon became very numer- 
ous in the vicinity of Mount Ararat, where they first set- 
tled after the deluge, and finding the place too small, they 
began to think of extending their territories and of making 
new settlements in different parts of the globe. Before 
their separation, they proposed leaving some monument be- 
hind them that might make their memory famous in after 
ages. With this view they undertook to build a city and 
in it to erect a tower, the top of which might reach to hea- 
ven. Their intention was not merely to signalize their 
name, but also to provide themselves with a place of secu- 
rity against any future deluge that might happen. At this 
time, all mankind spoke the same language, and thereby 
more effectually encouraged each other in their impious 
undertaking. God being offended at their presumption, re- 
solved to stop the progress of their labor. By a stroke of 
his divine power, they all in a moment lost their uniform- 
ity of accent, and were surprised to hear nothing but a con- 
fused and discordant sound of words which no one could 
understand. The tumult and disorder that ensued, caused 
them to desist from their design, and the tower which they 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 15 

had begun, was on that account, called the Tower of Babel, 
or Confusion. 

After this event, mankind separated and dispersed into 
different nations. The descendants of Shern are said to 
have settled in the south of Asia; those of Ham in Syria, 
Arabia and Africa, while the posterity of Japhet peopled 
the west of Asia and also Europe. 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

1. Assyria, the first of the four great empires of an- 
tiquity, derived its name from Ashur, the son of Shem, 
who is said 10 havs been the founder of Nineveh, its capi- 
tal. The foundation of Babylon is ascribed to Nimrod, 
the grand son of Ham, who is believed by many to be the 
same as Belus of profane history. These two cities are 
supposed to have been founded about the same time, short- 
ly after the dispersion of mankind ; but their history for 
many ages is involved in obscurity. It is commonly sup- 
posed, that Assyria and Babylon were originally two dis- 
tinct kingdoms", and continued separate until Babylon was 
conquered by Ninus and annexed to the Assyrian empire. 

2. Ninus is represented as a great and powerful sovereign ; 
he is said to have built or at least to have enlarged and em- 
bellished the city of Nineveh which stood upon the eastern 
bank of the Tigris. Hip design was to immortalize his 
name by the building of a city, which iri point of extent 
and magnificence, could not be surpassed by any other in 
after times. Nor was he much deceived in his view. The 
city of Nineveh was built in the form of an oblong square, 
measuring eighteen miles and three quarters in length, 
eleven and one quarter in breadth, and sixty miles in cir- 
cumference. The walls were one hundred feet high, and 
of such thickness that three chariots might stand abreast 
upon them with ease. They were fortified and adorned 
with fifteen hundred towers, two hundred feet high. 

3. Ninus having made extensive conquests, married 
Semiiamis, who succeeded him in the throne. She is de- 
scribed not only as surpassing all her sex in wit and beauty, 
but also possessing unbounded ambition and extraordinary 
talents for government and war. Site enlarged Babylon 
and rendered it the most magnificent city in the world. 



16 ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

The description of Babylon, given by ancient historians, 
seems almost incredible. The walls are said to have been 
eighty-seven feet in thickness and three hundred and fifty 
in height, They were drawn round the city in the form 
of an exact square, each side of which was fifteen miles in 
length, all built of brick cemented together with bitumen. 
On every side of this great square, there were twenty-five 
gates which were all made of solid brass. From these 
twenty-five gates, the same number of streets run in parallel 
lines to the gates on the opposite side of the wall, thus 
forming fifty streets, each fifteen miles long, each street 
one hundred and fifty feet broad. Round these squares, on 
every side stood the houses, all built three or four stoiies 
high and beautified by all manner of ornaments towards the 
streets. The space within the middle of each square was 
void ground laid out in beautiful gardens. 

4. Semiramis, after a reign of great splendor for forty- 
two years, left the thrOne to her son Ninyas. From the 
time of Ninyas to the overthrow of the monarchy under 
Sardanapalus, a period of several centuries, little or nothing 
is known respecting the history of Assyria and Babylon. 

The name of Sardanapalus is almost a proverbial re- 
proach. He is said to have so degraded himself as to 
adopt the dress and occupation of a female, and to have 
passed his life in the most disgraceful effeminacy and vo- 
luptuousness. At length Arbaces, governor of Media, with 
Belesis, governor of the city of Babylon, and several oth- 
ers, disgusted with his inglorious and shameful life, formed 
a conspiracy against him. Sardanapalus having sustained 
a defeat, in order to avoid falling into the hands of his ene- 
mies, caused a pile of wood to be made in his palace and 
burnt himself with all his women and treasures. 

5. On the ruins of this vast empire, were founded three 
new kingdoms ; that of Media under Arbaces, and that of 
Babylon under Belesis, and a third of Assyria, whose first 
king was named Ninus the younger. Ninus was succeed- 
ed by Tiglath-pileser, who invaded Judah during the reign 
of Ahaz, and took possession of that part of the kingdom 
of Israel which lies east of the Jordan. Under the reign 
of his successor, Shalmaneser, an end was put to the king- 
dom of Israel, and its inhabitants were carried into captiv- 
ity. The next sovereign was Senacherib, who laid seige 
to Jerusalem in the reign of Hezekiah, but he was com- 
pelled to return to his own dominions in disgrace, having 
lost 185*000 men of his army, who were destroyed in a 



ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 17 

miraculous manner in one night. The fourth king, Esar- 
haddon, defeated Manasseh, king of Judah, and carried him 
captive into Assyria. 

6. After the death of Esarhaddon, Nabopolassar or Ne- 
buchadnezzar, king of Babylon, assisted by Cyaxares, king 
of Media, beseiged Nineveh, and having taken it, killed 
Saracus the king and utterly destroyed that mighty city, 
and put an end to the Assyrian monarchy. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Nebuchadnezzar II., who took Jerusa- 
lem and carried the Jews captive to Babylon. The partic- 
ulars of this sovereign's reign are recorded in the book of 
Daniel. God, to punish his pride, reduced him to a state 
of insanity, but after wandering in the forest and feeding 
on grass like a wild beast for twelve months, he again re- 
covered his mind, and being restored to his throne, by a sol- 
emn edict, published throughout his dominions the aston- 
ishing things that -God had wrought in him. 

7. During the reign of Belshazzar, who suceeeeed to 
the throne a few years after the death of Nebuchadnezzar, 
the Persians under Cyrus, after a seige of two years, by 
turning the course of the Euphrates, entered the city of 
Babylon through the dry channel, and took it while the in- 
habitants were engaged in feasting and riot Belshazzar 
was slain, and with him ended the Babylonian empire, after 
it had continued for about two hundred and ten years. 

8. Antiquities. The government both of Assyria and 
Babylon was strictly despotic and the sceptre hereditary. 
The whole was centered in the king; all decrees emanated 
from him, and he even claimed the worship which belonged 
only to the divinity. The laws of the empire were in gen- 
eral vague and uncertain, depending wholly upon the will 
of the sovereign ; but there was one, however, fixed and 
irrevocable, which obliged all, particularly the poor, to 
marry. And in this a singular custom prevailed. No man 
had any power over his own daughters, but as soon as they 
were marriageable, they were put up at auction ; and the 
price obtained for the more beautiful was assigned as a 
dowery for the more homely. In consequence of this prac- 
tice, all the young women were disposed of in marriage ; 
the beautiful for their charms, and the homely for their 
wealth. 

9. The Babylonians and particularly the Chaldeans, 
were early famed for their learning. They were the first 
who cultivated astronomy and discovered the exact motion 
of the planets ; they pretended to be able to foretell future 

1* 



18 ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

events from the heavenly bodies, which was embodied into 
a kind of science called astrology. They built temples to 
the stars as being the subordinate agents of the divine 
power, and by worshiping them they hoped to obtain the 
good will of the deity. 

From this they descended, by a natural process, to the 
worship of objects on earth as the representatives of the 
stars or the deity. It is evident that this was the origin of 
idol worship, from the fact that the names of the principal 
gods of the heathens in general are those of the sun, moon 
and the five primary planets, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mer- 
cury, and Venus. The horrid custom of sacrificing human 
victims to conciliate their gods, was first practiced by the 
Babylonians, and from them it was communicated to the 
surrounding nations. 

The Babylonians applied themselves only to the more 
useful arts. Their immense buildings prove them to have 
been well skilled in architecture and geometry. They 
never attained to any superior excellence in painting and 
statuary ; music and poetry were probably but little attend- 
ed to. 



PERSIA. 



i. Persia was the second of the four great empires of 
antiquity. Its history, prior to the reign of Cyrus the Great, 
is involved in obscurity and fable. It was originally call- 
ed Elma, and the inhabitants Elamites, who were the de- 
scendants of Shem. We are informed by the scriptures that 
one of the kings of Elma conquered the king of Sodom, 
but was pursued and defeated by Abraham. In the early 
ages, it was of very limited extent, but under the reign of 
Cyrus, who was the founder of the great Persian empire, 
it became the most powerful and extensive monarchy in 
the world, comprising Persia, Media, Babylonia, Syria and 
Asia Minor; to these Egypt was added by Cambyses. 

2. Cyrus is represented as a prince of an excellent char- 
acter, and obtained the surname of Great, from his heroic 
aclions and splendid achievements. Having subdued all 
the nations from the vEgaean sea to the Euphrates, he to- 
gether with his uncle Cyaxares, the second king of the 
Medes, took Babylon and conquered the Assyrian empire. 
After the death of Cyaxares, Cyrus united the two king- 
doms and reigned over them for seven years, in the first of 
which he published the famous edict for the return of the 
Jews and rebuilding of Jerusalem. 

3. Herodotus, Xenophon and other ancient authors, differ 
materially in the accounts they give of the exploits and char- 
acter of Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Cyrus possessed 
all the abilities of an illustrious and able sovereign, with all 
the more amiable virtues that adorn humanity; and accord- 
ing to the same author, he died like a philosopher, discours- 
ing of death with tranquility, and giving the most admira- 
ble instruction to his children, by which to form their char- 
acter and regulate their future conduct. On the contra- 
ry, we are told by Herodotus, that Cyrus, having under- 
taken an expedition against the Scythians, was surprized 



20 PERSIA. 

and slain by a stratagem of the enemy. The account given 
by Xenophon, has been followed by Rollin and other mod- 
ern writers, yet it is supposed by some, that it was not the 
design of that author to exhibit a faithful record of facts, 
but rather to delineate the .modePof a perfect prince and a 
well organized government. 

4. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who was 
arbitrary and cruel: his principal exploit was the conquest 
of Egypt; he made himself master of Pelusium by plac- 
ing in front of his army a great number of those animals 
considered sacred by the Egyptians, who not daring to injure 
them, made no opposition to the Persians. On the death 
of Cambyses, Smerdis usurped the crown ; but after en- 
joying the regal dignity for seven months, he was assassin- 
ated, and Darius was elected to fill the vacant throne. The 
history of Persia from the reign of this sovereign, until the 
overthrow of the monarchy, is much connected with that 
of Greece. 

5. Darius was succeeded by his son Xerxes I., who con- 
ducted the second invasion of Greece, but returned to his 
own dominions in shame and disgrace, after sustaining a 
series of defeats, with immense loss. He was succeeded 
by his son Artaxerxes, who enjoyed a long and peaceful 
reign. The only sovereigns of distinction who reigned af- 
ter this period, were Artaxerxes II., and Darius Codomanus, 
the last of the Persian monarchs. Codomanus was de- 
feated by Alexander the Great, and finally assassinated: 
and with his death the ancient empire terminated, A. C. 
338. 

6. Antiquities. The government of Persia was an ab- 
solute monarchy ; the crown was hereditary, and generally 
bestowed on the eldest son of the deceased king. The sov- 
ereigns received almost divine honors from their subjects. 
No one could approach the seat of majesty without pros- 
trating himself upon the ground, or remain in his presence 
without holding his hands within his sleeves ; a violation 
of this ceremony was punished with death. The royal 
palace at Persepolis was extremely magnificent; the ceil- 
ing and walls of the apartments were covered with ivory, 
silver, gold or amber ; the throne was also of fine gold 
adorned with precious stones. 

7. The Persians are said to have paid more particular 
regard to the education of their children than any other na- 
tion. We are told that a son was never admitted into the 
presence of his father, until he arrived at the age of five 



PERSIA. 21 

years, lest the parent might be too heavily afflicted by the 
loss, if the child should die before that period. At the age 
of five years, the children, at least of the higher order of 
the state, were placed under the care of learned and virtuous 
masters, who bestowed on their pupils the utmost attention. 

8. The mode of punishment among the Persians, was 
generally severe : it consisted in cutting off the right hand, 
decapitation, pressing to death between two large stones, 
and the like. The most severe and inhuman, was that of 
fastening the culprit in such a manner that he was unable 
to move hand or foot. His face, exposed to the rays of 
the sun, was smeared with honey, which invited innumer- 
able swarms of flies and wasps to torment him ; the exe- 
cutioners compelled him by thrusting sharp instruments 
into his eyes, to receive nourishment, for the purpose of 
prolonging his agonies. We are told of one victim, who 
lived seventeen days under these torments. The Persians 
were trained to all the military exercises, but particularly 
to the use of the bow. They never fought in the night, 
nor used any stratagem independent of their valor. 

9. Their religion was idolatrous, but not so gross as 
that of some of the surrounding nations. They professed 
to worship the one all-wise and omnipotent God ; but they 
held lire to be holy and the purest symbol of the divine na- 
ture. In connection with this they adored the sun, and 
paid a superstitious regard to other elements, such as the 
earth, air and water. In ancient times they were destitute 
of temples, and erected altars for the preservation of the 
sacred fire, on the tops of mountains. At length Zoroaster 
persuaded them, for the sake of convenience, to build over 
each a pyreum or fire-temple. The priests were called 
Magi, and were held in great esteem on account of their 
learning. 



PHOENICIANS. 



1. The Phoenicians were among the most remarkable 
and early civilized nations of antiquity. They were styled 
Canaanites in the scripture, and seem to have been a com- 
mercial people in the time of Abraham. The two princi- 
pal cities, and the most ancient we read of in history, were 
Tyre and Sidon. The Phoenicians are reputed inventors 
of glass, purple, letters, and coinage ; they are regarded as 
the earliest navigators and merchants in the world ; they 
carried on trade, not only over all the coasts of the Med- 
iterranean, but even visited ths shores of Britain, from which 
they exported tin. 

2. To Hiram, king of Tyre, both David and Solomon 
applied, when proposing to build the temple at Jerusalem ; 
he furnished them not only with precious materials, but 
also with a great number of workmen. They sent out a 
number of colonies to Cyprus, Rhodes, Greece, Sicily, 
Sardinia, and Spain ; the foundation of Carthage is attribu- 
ted to Dido, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, with a 
company of adventurers. The city of Tyre sustained two 
memorable sieges and was twice taken: first by Nebuc- 
hadnezzar, and again by Alexander the Great. 



EGYPT 



SECTION I. 

1. Egypt, holds a conspicious place in history, on ac- 
count of its early civilization and high attainment in the 
arts. It was considered by the ancients, as the most re- 
nowned school of wisdom and politics, ana the source from 
which most of the arts and sciences are derived. Even the 
most illustrious men of Greece, such as Homer and Plato, 
Lycurgus and Solon, travelled into Egypt to complete their 
studies and draw from thence whatever was rare and valu- 
able in learning. 

2. The ancient history of this country is greatly involved 
in obscurity ; historians, however, unanimously agree that 
Mizraim the son of Ham, was the founder of the Egyptian 
monarchy ; he is supposed to be the same as Menes, who 
is said to have instituted the worship of the gods, and the 
ceremonies of the sacrifices ; he was succeeded in the 
throne by his posterity, for several generations. Egypt 
was next governed by a race of foreign princes from Ara- 
bia, styled shepherd kings, who invaded the country and 
retained possession of the greater portion of it for the space 
of two hundred and sixty years. 

3. The ancient Egyptians seem never to have been a 
warlike nation. The only king of the country, whose 
name stands recorded as a great conquerer, is Sesostris, 
who is said to have maintained a numerous army and con- 
quered a great part of Asia; but little is known of his 
achievements or the extent of his conquests. Towards the 
close of his life, he is said to have renounced the profession 
of arms, and to have devoted himself to the internal improve- 
ment of his kingdom. Having become blind in his old 
age, he died by his own hand, after a reign of thirty-three 
years. 



24 EGYPT. 

4. The next sovereign who is particularly destinguished 
in the history of this country, was Nechus, styled in the 
scripture, Pharaoh-Necho. He patronized navigation and 
fitted out a fleet, which leaving the Red Sea, sailed around 
the coast of Africa and returned to Egypt through the straits 
of Gibraltar: he waged a successful war against the Medes 
and Babylonians, and defeated Josiah, king of Judah, in 
the battle Megiddo, and imposed an annual tribute upon the 
country. 

5. Egypt was invaded by the Persians under Cambyses, 
about the year five hundred and twenty-five before the Chris- 
tian era; the cities of Pelusiurn and Memphis were taken, 
and the whole country reduced to a province of the Persian 
monarchy. Egypt was wrested from the dominion of Per- 
sia by Alexander the Great ; and after his death it fell to the 
share of Ptolemy ; under him and his successors, the coun- 
try regained its ancient lustre, and rose to eminence in sci- 
ence and commerce; the dynasty of the Ptolemies, con- 
tinued from the death of Alexander to that of Cleopatra, 
embracing a period of two hundred and ninety-three years. 

6. Ptolemy Lagus, surnamed also Soter, is said to have 
been the natural Son of Philip, king of Macedon, and half 
brother of Alexander the Great. At the time of Alexan- 
der's death, he was governor of Egypt, and afterwards be- 
came king of the country. He was a man of great abili- 
ties, equally eminent as a general and a statesman, distin- 
guished for his learning and a munificent patron of litera- 
ture. 

He founded the famous library of Alexandria, established 
a museum or academy, and erected the celebrated watch 
tower of Pharos, which was reckoned by some as one of 
the seven wonders of the world. He built a number of 
new cities, encouraged commerce and agriculture, and con- 
quered Syria. He died after a prosperous reign of thirty-? 
nine years. 

7. Potemy Lagus was succeeded by his son Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, whose reign like that of his father, was pros- 
perous and useful. He patronized commerce and naviga- 
tion, founded several cities and erected magnificent build- 
ings. His court was a seat of learning, politeness and the 
arts, and was resorted to by men of genius. During his 
reign, the celebrated version of the Old Testament into 
Greek, called the Septuagint, was made for the use of the 
Jews, who were settled at that time in Alexandria. 



EGYPT. 25 

8. Ptolemy Evergetes, the son of the late monarch, who 
succeeded to the throne, was a warlike prince, but also a 
patron of learning and spared no pains to enrich his library. 
In the early part of his reign, he carried on a severe though 
successful war with Antiochus, king of Syria. He was 
succeeded by his son Ptolemy Philopator, a sanguinary ty- 
rant, whose reign was distinguished for a cruel persecution 
of the Jews. Having invaded Judah and advanced as far 
as Jerusalem, he attempted to enter by force into the holy 
plane of the Jewish temple, into which none but the high 
priest was allowed to enter, and that only once a year. 
Being forcibly prevented from committing this sacrilege, he 
returned to Egypt, and resolved to wreak his vengeance on 
the Jews, who had enjoyed the favor of his predecessors. 

9. He published a decree, that all the Jews within his 
dominions should abjure their religion and sacrifice to the 
gods of Egypt, under the severest penalties ; however, only 
about nine hundred were found to apostatize. After this, 
he ordered all the Jews in Alexandria, to assemble in a place 
of public diversion, called Hippodrome, where he had col- 
lected five hundred elephants for the destruction of that de- 
voted people ; but the enraged animals rushing among the 
crowd, crushed to death a greater number of the spectators 
than of the Jews ; yet it is computed that about forty thous- 
and of the latter perished on that occasion. 

10. The history of the remaining Ptolemies presents 
little that is interesting; their reigns for the most were un- 
happy, abounding in crimes and calamities. Ptolemy 
Dionysius, was the last king of Egypt; he succeeded to the 
throne at the early age of thirteen years ; he reigned in con- 
junction with his sister the celebrated Cleopatra, who as- 
pired to undivided authority. A war ensued in which 
Ptolemy was slain, and Cleopatra, assumed the sole govern- 
ment. Her history is connected with that of Julius Caesar 
and Mark Antony; she finally caused her own death by 
poison, in order to avoid being led captive to Rome to grace 
the triumph of Octavius. After her death, Egypt became a 
Roman province. 



26 EGYPT. 

SECTION II. 
Manners and Customs of the Egyptians. 

1. A striking resemblance with regard to government, 
religion, customs and character, is said to exist between the 
ancient Egyptians and many of the oriental nations, partic- 
ularly the Chinese. The government was an hereditary 
monarchy, but the power of the sovereign was restrained by 
the influence of the priests. At day-break in the morning, 
the king arose and read the several letters he received the 
preceding day. He then went to the temple to attend the 
offering of the sacrifice, and to assist at the prayers pro- 
nounced aloud by the high priest, who invoked the blessing 
of the gods upon the prince, that he might govern his peo- 
ple with clemency and justice. The laws proscribed not 
only the quality but also quantity of food for the royal 
table ; as for the quality, it was of the most common kind ; 
because eating in Egypt, was designed, not to please the 
palate, but to satisfy the cravings of nature. 

2. The laws of Egypt were generally based upon the 
strictest justice. Wilful murder was punished with death, 
whatever might be the condition of the murdered person, 
whether he was free-born or otherwise. Perjury was also 
punished with death, because that crime insulted the majes- 
ty of the gods by invoking their name to a falsehood, and 
broke the strongest ties of human society, namely, sincer- 
ity and veracity. No man was allowed to be useless to the 
state ; but every one was obliged to enter his name on the 
public register, and give an account of his profession and 
means of support. Polygamy was allowed in Egypt ex- 
cept to the priests, who could only marry but one woman. 
An unusual custom prevailed among the Egyptians, which 
permitted the marriage of brother and sister ; hence we find 
that the queens of the Ptolemies were generally their sisters. 

3. In Egypt, the greatest respect was paid to old age. 
The young were obliged to rise up for the old, and on every 
occasion to resign to them the most honorable seats. The 
virtue in the highest esteem among the Egyptians, was grati- 
tude ; and it has been said of them that they were the most 
grateful of men. But it was particularly towards their kings 
that they prided themselves on evincing their gratitude ; they 
honored them while living as so many visible representations 
of the deity, and after their death, lamented them as the 
fathers of their country. 



EGYPT. 27 

4. Never were any people more superstitious than the 
Egyptians; they had a great number of gods of different 
orders and degrees ; among these Osiris and Isis, were the 
most universally adored. Besides these gods, they wor- 
shiped the ox, the wolf, the dog, the crocodile, the ibis or 
cat, and many other degrading objects. It was death for 
any one to kill one of these animals voluntarily. Diodorus 
relates the circumstance of a Roman, who fell a victim to 
the fury of the populace of Alexandria, for having accident- 
rlly killed a cat. The Egyptians held the doctrine of the 
transmigration of souls; and believed that at the death of a 
man, his soul intered into some other human body ; and that 
if he had been vicious, his soul was confined in the body 
of some beast to expiate his former transgressions ; and that 
after some centuries it would again animate another human 
body. 

5. No people paid greater respect to the bodies of the 
dead than the Egyptians. As soon as any person in a 
family died, all the relations and friends laid aside their 
usual habits and put on mourning, which they continued to 
wear for forty days or longer, according to the quality of the 
person. The body was then embalmed, by which process 
it was preserved from decay ; after this, the corpse was put 
into a kind of an open chest, and placed upright against the 
wall of the dwelling or sepulchre ; so that the children see- 
ing the bodies of their ancestors, thus preserved, recalled 
to mind those virtues for which the public had honored 
them, and were excited to imitate their example. 

6. The power of the laws extended even beyond the 
grave; because, before any one could be admitted into the 
sacred asylum of the tomb, he was obliged to undergo a 
solemn trial; and this circumstance in Egyptian funerals, 
is one of the most remarkable to be found in ancient his- 
tory. The whole life of each person after death, was strict- 
ly examined ; and if found to be virtuous, his body was 
embalmed with every mark of respect, and deposited in a 
sepulchre ; but if his life had been vicious or if he had died 
in debt, he was left unhurried, and was supposed to be de- 
prived of future happiness. The kings themselves were 
not exempted from this trial after death ; if their lives were 
vicious they were deprived of funeral rights and the honor 
of the sepulchre. 



28 EGYPT. 

SECTION III. 

The Pyramids, Labyrinth, Lake of Mseris, fyc. 

1. The Pyramids of Egypt are the most celebrated of 
those works of grandeur, for which that country has been 
renowned. Of these Pyramids, there were three near the 
city of Memphis, more famous than the rest; one of which 
was justly ranked among the seven wonders of the world. 
According to several ancient authors, each side of the base 
measured eight hundred feet, and as many feet in height. 
A hundred thousand men are said to have been employed 
for the space of twenty years in erecting this vast edifice. 
The Pyramids were designed as tombs for the kings, and 
there is still to be seen in the middle of the largest, an 
empty sepulchre, cut out of one entire stone, about three 
feet wide and six feet long. 

2. The Labyrinth of Egypt, was an enormous structure 
of marble built under ground ; it comprised twelve palaces 
with a communication leading to each other, and divided 
into fifteen hundred rooms or apartments. These subter- 
raneous structures were designed as a burying-place for 
kings, and also for keeping the sacred crocodiles. The 
Obelisks with which Egypt abounded, were quadrangular 
spires terminating in a point, often wonderful on account 
of their beauty and height. Sesostris erected two near the 
city of Heliopolis, each one hundred and eighty feet in 
height. Several of these obelisks, with immense labor, 
were transported to Rome, where they form at the present 
day the chief ornaments of that city. Many of them were 
covered with hieroglyphics, that is, mystical characters 
used by the Egyptians before the invention of letters, and 
afterwards to conceal the mysteries of their theology. 

3. The noblest and the most wonderful of all the struc- 
tures of the kings of Egypt, was the lake of Maeris, which 
Herodotus considers as even superior to the pyramids. 
This lake was in circumference about one hundred and 
eighty French leagues, and three hundred feet deep. Two 
pyramids, on each of which was placed a collossal stature, 
seated upon a throne, raised their heads to the height of 
three hundred feet, in the midst of the lake, above the sur- 
face of the water. It is generally believed that this im- 
mense reservoir, with its pyramids, was completed in the 
reign of one monarch, from whom it takes its name ; and 
was designed to regulate the inundations of the Nile. 



EGYPT. 29 

When that river rose too high and fatal consequences 
seemed likely to follow, the water was let into the lake and 
covered the lands no longer than was necessary to enrich 
them. On the contrary, when the inundation was too low 
and threatened a famine, a sufficient quantity of water was 
let out of the lake upon the land. 

4. The ruins of a few of the ancient cities and palaces 
of Egypt still excite the wonder and admiration of the 
traveller. The glory of Thebes, the capital of Upper 
Egypt, famous for its hundred gates, was the theme of ad- 
miration of poets and historians at a period prior to the 
commencement of authentic history. Strabo and Diodorus 
describe it under the name of Diospolis, and give such 
magnificent descriptions of its monuments, as to cause their 
fidelity to be called in question, until the observations of 
modern travellers have proved their accounts to have fallen 
short of the reality. The ruins of one of the palaces of 
this city are especially admired, and seem to have remained 
only to eclipse the glory of the most pompous edifices of 
modern times. There were four avenues of great extent 
which led to four porticos of amazing height; they were 
boifnded on each side with statues, composed of materials 
as rare and extraordinary as their size was remarkable.— 
Within the middle of this stately palace, there was a hall 
supported by one hundred and twenty pillars, thirty-six feet 
in circumference and of proportionable height, which the 
lapse of so many ages has not been able to demolish. Be- 
fore the time of Herodotus, Memphis had supplanted The- 
bes, which seems to have been particularly noted for its 
stately temples, and among them that of the god Apis, was 
the most remarkable. 



GREECE 



SECTION I. 

1. Among the various nations of antiquity, Greece de- 
servedly holds the most distinguished rank, both for the 
patriotism, genius and learning of its inhabitants, as well 
as the high state of perfection to which they carried the 
arts and sciences. 

Greece formerly comprised various small independent 
states, differing from each other in the forms of their gov- 
ernment, and in the character of the people, but still united 
in a confederacy for their mutual defense, by the council 
of Amphictyons, and by their common language, religion 
and public games. 

2. The ancient name of Greece was Hellas, and the in- 
habitants were called Hellenes ; but by the poets they were 
distinguished by different names ; such as the Danai, Pe- 
lasgi, Argivi, Achivi, &c. The original inhabitants, who 
are generally considered as the descendants of Javan, the 
son of Japhet, lived in the lowest state of barbarism, 
dwelling in huts, feeding on acorns and berries, and cloth- 
ing themselves in the skins of wild beasts, when Ce- 
crops with a colony from Egypt, and Cadmus with a body 
of Phoenicians landed in Greece, and planted on its shores 
the first rudiments of civilization. 

The early form of government of Greece was a limited 
monarchy, which was finally abolished, and a republican 
form generally prevailed. 

3. The history of Greece may be divided into two parts : 
1st, the period of uncertain history, which extends from 
the earliest accounts of the country, to the first Persian 
war in the year 490 B. C. : 2nd, the period of authentic 
history extending from the invasion by Persia, to the final 
subjugation of Greece by the Romans, A. C. 148. The 



GREECE. 31 

first period is generally reckoned from the foundation of 
Sicyon, the most ancient kingdom of Greece, and com- 
prises a space of about 1600 years. This long succession 
of ages, though greatly involved in obscurity and fable, is 
still interspersed with several interesting particulars: it con- 
tains no records however, that properly deserve the name 
of history. 

4. The Grecian history derive some authenticity at this 
period, from the Chronicle of Paros, preserved among the 
Arundelian marbles at Oxford. The authority of this chron- 
icle has been much questioned of late : but still, by many, 
it is thought to be worthy of considerable credit. It fixes 
the dates of the most important events in the history of 
Greece from the time of Cecrops down to the age of Alex- 
ander the Great. 

5. Sicyon, the capital of the ancient kingdom of that 
name, was founded by iEgialus ; Argos by Inachus, the 
last of the Titans ; Athens, which afterwards bore such a 
distinguished part in the history of Greece, was founded 
by Cecrops, with a colony from Egypt. He was an emi- 
nent legislator, and instituted the court of Areopagus ; 
Thebes was founded by Cadmus, who is said to have in- 
troduced letters into Greece from Phoenicia ; the alphabet 
however, only consisted of sixteen letters, and the mode of 
writing was alternately from right to left, and from left to 
right. 

6. In the time of Cranaus, who succeeded Cecrops, 
happened the deluge of Deucalion; this deluge though 
much magnified by the poets, was probably only a partial 
inundation. 

The other memorable institutions that distinguish this 
period, were the Eleusinian mysteries, the Olympic and 
other games of which we will speak hereafter : also the 
marvellous exploits of Hercules and Theseus, 



SECTION II. 

The Fabulous and Heroic Jlges, 

1. The fabulous age comprises the period from the foun- 
dation of the principal cities, to the commencement of civili- 
zation and the introduction of lettters and arts into Greece. 



82 GREECE, 

The first great enterprize undertaken by the Greeks, was 
the Argonautic expedition, which appears in its details to 
partake more of fable than of history. It was commanded 
by Jason, the son of the king of Iolchos, who was accom- 
panied by many of the most illustrious men of Greece ; 
among whom were Hercules, Theseus, Castor and Pollux, 
Orpheus, iEsculapius the Physician, and Chiron the As- 
tronomer. 

2. They sailed from Iolchos, in Thessaly, to Colchis, 
on the eastern coast of the Euxine sea ; they received the 
name Argonauts from the ship Argo in which they sailed, 
said to have been the first sea vessel ever built. This famous 
voyage, which was probably a military and mercantile adven- 
ture, is commonly represented to have been undertaken for 
the purpose of recovering the golden fleece of a ram, which 
originally belonged to their country. The fleece is pre- 
tended to have been guarded by bulls that breathed 'fire and 
by a dragon that never slept. 

3. The heroic age was particularly distinguished by the 
Trojan war, the history of which rests on the authority of 
Homer, and forms the subject of his Iliad, the noblest poem 
of antiquity. According to the poet, Hellen, the daughter 
of Tyndarus, king of Sparta, was reputed the most beau- 
tiful woman of her age, and her hand was solicited by the 
most illustrious princes of Greece. Her father bound all 
her suitors by a solemn oath, that they would abide by 
the choice that Hellen should make of one among them ; 
and that, should she be taken from the arms of her husband, 
they would assist, to the utmost of their power to recover 
her. 

4. Hellen gave her hand to Menelaus, and after her nup- 
tials, Tyndarus her father resigned the crown to his son- 
in-law. Paris, the son of Priam, king of Troy, a power- 
ful city founded by Dardanus, having adjudged the prize 
of superior beauty to Venus in preference to Juno and Mi- 
nerva, was promised by her the most beautiful woman of 
the age for his wife. Shortly after this event, Paris visited 
Sparta, where he was kindly received by Menelaus ; but 
in return for the kind hospitality tendered to him, he per- 
suaded Hellen to elope with him to Troy, and carried ofF 
with her a considerable amount of treasure. 

5. This act of treachery and ingratitude produced the 
Trojan war; a confederacy was immediately formed by 
the princes of Greece agreeable to their engagement, to 
avenge the outrage. An army of 100,000 men was con- 



GREECE. 33 

veyed in a fleet of 1200 vessels, to the Trojan coast. Ag- 
amemnon, king of Argos, brother of Menelaus, was selec- 
ted as commander-in-chief. Some of the other princes, 
most distinguished in this war were, Achilles, the bravest 
of the Greeks ; also Ajax, Menelaus, Ulyses, Nestor and 
Diomedes. 

6. The Trojans were commanded by Hector, the son 
of Priam, assisted by Paris, Deiphobus, JEneas and Sar- 
pedon. After a siege of ten years, the city was taken by 
stratagem, plundered of its wealth and burnt to the ground. 
The venerable Priam, king of Troy, was slain and all his 
family led into captivity. About eighty years after the 
destruction of Troy, the civil war of the Heraclidae began ; 
it is usually called the return of the Heraclidae into Pelop- 
onnesus. Hercules, king of Mycenae, a city of Pelopon- 
nesus, was banished from his country with all his family, 
while the crown was seized by Atreus, the son of Pelops. 
After the lapse of about a century, the descendants of Her- 
cules returned to Peloponnesus, and having expelled the 
inhabitants, again took possession of the country. 



SECTION III. 

Republic of Sparta. 



1. Sparta, or Lacedaemon was the capital of Laconia in 
the southern part of Peloponnesus. After the return of 
the Heraclidae, the government was administered by the 
two sons of Aristodemus, who reigned jointly, and this 
double monarchy was transmitted to the descendants of 
each for a period of 880 years. 

2. This radical principle of disunion, and consequently 
of anarchy, made the want of a regular system of laws 
severely felt. Lycurgus, the brother of one of the kings 
of Sparta, a man distinguished alike for his great abilities 
and stern integrity, was invested, by the united voice of 
the sovereigns and the people, with the important duty of 
framing a new constitution for his country. The arduous 
task being at length completed, produced not only an entire 
change in the form of government, but also *n the manners 
of the people. He instituted a Senate, elective, consisting 
of 28 members* whose office was to preserve a just bal- 

2 



34 GREECE. 

ance between the power of the kings and that of the peo- 
ple. Nothing could come before the assembly of the peo- 
ple which had not received the previous consent of the 
senate ; and on the other hand, no action of the senate was 
effectual without the sanction of the people. The kings 
were continued, but were nothing more than hereditary 
presidents of the senate and generals of the army. 

3. Lycurgus divided the territory of the republic into 
39,000 equal portions among the free citizens ; and for the 
purpose of banishing luxury, commerce was abolished ; 
gold and silver coin was prohibited, and iron money was 
substituted as a medium of exchange ; a uniformity of 
dress was established, and all the citizens, not excepting 
the kings, were required to take their principal meals at 
the public tables, from which all luxury and excess were 
excluded, and a kind of black broth was the principal arti- 
cle of food. Among some of the admirable ceremonies 
which prevailed at these public meals, the following is in- 
teresting and instructive. When the* assembly was seated, 
the oldest man present, pointing to the door said, 'No 
word spoken here, goes out there." This wise regulation 
produced mutual confidence, and rendered them unrestrained 
in conversation. 

4. The institutions of Lycurgus, though in many re-" 
spects admirable, had still many defects. Infants shortly 
after their birth, underwent an examination, and those that 
were well formed, were delivered to public nurses ; and 
at the age of seven years, they were introduced into the 
public schools ; but all those who were deformed or sickly, 
were inhumanly exposed to perish. The young were 
taught to pay the greatest respect to the aged, and cherish 
an ardent love for their country ; the profession of arms 
was inculcated as the great business of life. Letters were 
only taught as far as they were useful ; hence the Spartans 
while they were distinguished for many heroic virtues, 
were never eminent for learning; and no productions have 
been transmitted to modern times written by a native of 
Sparta. They were accustomed to speak in brief sen- 
tences, so that this style of speaking, even at the present 
time, is called after them, laconic, Laconia being one of the 
names of their country. 

5. The youth were early inured to hardship ; they were 
accustomed to sleep on rushes, trained to the athletic exer- 
cises, and only supplied with plain and scanty food. They 
were even taught to steal whatever they could, provided, 



GREECE. 35 

they could accomplish the theft without being detected. 
Plutarch relates the fact of a boy who had stolen a fox and 
concealed it under his garments, and who actually suffered 
the animal to tear out his bowels, rather than discover the 
theft. The manners of the Lacedaemonian women were 
highly indelicate ; they were destitute of the milder virtues 
that most adorn the female character. Their education was 
calculated to give them a masculine energy, and to fill them 
with admiration of military glory. Mothers rather rejoiced 
'than wept, when their sons fell nobly in battle. "Return 
with your shield or on your shield," was the injunction of 
a Spartan mother to her son, when he was going to meet 
the enemy : intimating that he should conquer or die. 

6. For 500 years the institutions of Lycurgus continued 
in force. During this period, the influence of Sparta was 
felt throughout Greece ; her government acquired solidity, 
while the other states were torn by domestic dissensions. 
In the process of time, the severe manners and rigid virtues 
of her citizens began to relax ; changes in her laws and 
institutions were finally introduced, particularly during the 
reign of Lysander, whose conquests filled the country with 
wealth. 

From this period luxury and avarice began to prevail, 
until Sparta with the other states of Greece, sunk under the 
dominion of Philip, king of Macedon. 



SECTION IV, 

The Republic of Miens. 

1. Athens, the capital of Attica, was distinguished for 
its commerce, wealth, and magnificence, also as the seat of 
learning and the arts. The last king of Athens was Co* 
drus, who sacrificed himself for the good of his country in 
a war with the Heraclidse. After his death, no one being 
deemed worthy to succeed him, the regal government was 
abolished and the state was governed by magistrates, styled 
archons. The office was at first for life; it was afterwards 
reduced to a period of ten years; and finally the archons, 
nine in number, were annually elected, and were possessed 
of equal authority. 

2, As these changes produced convulsions in the siate 3 



38 G&EECE. 

and rendered the condition of the people miserable, the 
Athenians appointed Draco, a man of stern and rigid prin- 
ciples, to prepare a code of written laws. His laws were 
characterized by extreme seventy ; they punished every 
crime with death. Draco being asked why he was so se- 
vere in his punishment, replied that the smallest offense de- 
served death, and that he had no higher penalty for the 
greatest crime. The severity of these laws, prevented them 
from being fully executed, and at length caused them to be 
entirely abolished after a period of one hundred and fifty 
years. 

3. Solon, one of the seven wise men of Greece, being 
raised to the archonship, was intrusted with the care of 
framing for his country a new system of laws. His dispo- 
sition was mild and condescending; and, without attempt- 
ing to change the manners of his countrymen, he endea- 
voured to accommodate his system to their prevailing cus- 
toms, to moderate their dissensions, to restrain their pas- 
sions, and to open a field for the growth of virtue. Of his 
laws he said, " If they are not the best possible, they are 
the best the Athenians are capable of receiving." 

4» Solon's system divided the people into four classes, 
according to their wealth ; to the three first, composed of the 
richer citizens, he intrusted all the offices of the common- 
wealth. The fourth class, which was more numerous than 
the other three, had an equal right of suffrage in the public 
assembly, where all laws were framed and measures of state 
decreed : by this regulation the balance of power was thrown 
in favor of the people. He instituted a senate composed of 
four hundred, and afterwards increased it to five hundred per- 
sons. He restored the court of Areopagus, which had 
greatly fallen into disrepute, and committed to it the su- 
preme administration of justice. Commerce and agricul- 
ture were encouraged ; industry and economy enforced ; 
and the father who had taught his son no trade, could not 
claim a support from him in his old age. 

5. The manners of the Athenians formed a striking con- 
trast with those of the Lacedaemonians. At Athens, the arts 
were highly esteemed ; at Sparta, they were despised and 
neglected ; at Athens, peace was the natural state of the re- 
public, and the refined enjoyments of life, the aim of its citi- 
zens ; Sparta was entirely a military establishment ; her 
people made war the great business of life. Luxury char- 
acterized the Athenian, frugality the Spartan. They were 
both however, equally jealous of their liberty and equally 
brave in war. 



GREECE. 37 

6. Before the death of Solon, Pisistratus, a man of great 
wealth and eloquence, by courting- the popular favor, raised 
himself to the sovereign power, which he and his sons re- 
tained for fifty years. 

He governed with great ability ; encouraged the arts and 
sciences and is said to have founded the first public library 
known in the world, and first collected the poems of Homer 
into one volume, which before that time were repeated in 
detached portions. 

Pisistratus transmitted his power to his sons Hippias and 
Hipparchus. They governed for some time with wisdom 
and moderation, but having at length abused their power, a 
conspiracy was formed against them and their government 
was overthrown by Harmodius and Aristogiton. Hippar- 
chus was slain ; Hippias fled to Darius, king of Persia, 
who was then meditating the invasion of Greece; and was 
subsequently killed in the battle of Marathon, fighting 
against his countrymen. 



SECTION V. 

From the Invasion of Greece by the Persians, to the Pel- 
opennesian War. From B. C. 431, to 360. 

1. The period from the first invasion to the beginning of 
the Peloponnesian war, is esteemed the most glorious age 
of Greece, The series of victories obtained by the inhabi- 
tants over the Persians, are the most splendid recorded in 
history. The immediate cause which led to the invasion 
of Greece, seems to have been to avenge the aid which the 
Athenians gave to the people of Ionia, who attempted to 
throw off the yoke of Persia. 

2. Darius, king of Persia, having reduced the Ionians, 
next turned his arms against the Greeks their allies, with 
the design of making entire conquest of Greece. He dis- 
patched heralds to each of the Grecian states demanding 
earth and water, which was an acknowledgment of his su- 
premacy. Thebes and several of the other cities submitted 
to the demand", but Athens and Sparta indignantly refused, 
and seizing the heralds, they cast one into a pit and another 
into a well, and told them to take there their earth and water. 

B. Darius now commenced his hostiLe attack both by sea 



38 GREECE. 

and land. The first Persian fleet under the command of 
Mardonius, was wrecked in doubling the promontory of 
Athos, with a loss of no less than 300 vessels; a second of 
600 sail, ravaged the Grecian islands ; while an immense 
army, consisting 1 of 110,000 men, poured clown impetuous- 
ly on Attica. This formidable host was met by the Athe- 
nian army under the command of Miltiades, on the plains 
of Marathon, where the Persians were signally defeated 
and fled with precipitation to their ships. The loss of the 
Persians amounted to 6,300 ; while the Athenian army, 
which did not exceed 10,000 men, lost only 192. A soldier 
covered with wounds ran to Athens with the news, and 
having only strength sufficient to say, " Rejoice! the vic- 
tory is ours," fell down and expired. 

4. Miltiades, the illustrious general by whose valor this 
great victory was gained, received the most unhuman treat- 
ment from his ungrateful countrymen. Being accused of 
treason for an unsuccessful attack on the isle of Paros, he 
was condemned to death ; this punishment however was 
commuted into a fine of 50 talents, (about 50,000 dollars.) 
In consequence of his being unable to pay this amount, he 
was cast into prison, where he died in a few days of the 
wounds he received in the defense of his country. 

5. The Athenians at this time were divided into two par- 
ties, under their respective leaders, Aristides the advocate 
of aristocracy, and Themestocles of democracy. Aristides, 
who on account of his integrity was called the just, through 
the intrigues of his great rival, was banished for ten years 
by the Ostracism. It happened while the people were 
giving their votes for his exile, that a certain citizen who 
was unable to write and who did not know him personally, 
brought him a shell and asked him to write the name of 
Aristides upon it. "Why what harm has Aristides ever 
done you?" said he; "No harm at all replied the citizen, 
but I cannot bear to hear him continually called the just." 
Aristides smiled and taking the shell, wrote his own name 
upon it and went into banishment. 

6. On the death of Darius, Xerxes his son,, who succeed- 
ed to the Persian throne, resolved to prosecute the war 
which his father had undertaken against Greece. Having 
spent lour years in making the necessary preparations, he 
collected an army, according to Herodotus, exceeding 
2,000,000 of fighting men, and including the women and 
retinue of attendants, the whole multitude is said to have 
exceeded 5,0,00,0,00 of persons. His fleet consisted of 



GREECK. 39 

more than 1,200 galleys of war, besides 3,000 transports 
of various kinds. 

7. Having arrived at Mount Athos, he caused a canal, 
navigable for his largest vessels, to be cut through the isth- 
mus which joins that mountain to the continent, and for the 
conveyance of his army, he ordered two brides of boats 
to be extended across the Hellespont, at a point where it 
measures seven furlongs in breadth. The first of these 
bridges was destroyed by a tempest, on which account, 
Xerxes in transports of rage, ordered the sea to be scourged 
with three hundred stripes, and to be chained by casting 
into it a pair of fetters. The bridge being again repaired, 
the army commenced its march, and occupied seven days 
and seven nights in passing the straits, while those appoint- 
ed to conduct the march, lashed the soldiers with whips in 
order to quicken their speed. 

8. Xerxes having taken a position on an eminence from 
which he could view the vast assemblage he had collected, 
the plain covered with his troops and the sea overspread 
with his vessels, at first called himself the most favored of 
mortals. But when he reflected that in the short space of 
a hundred years, not one of the many thousands then be- 
fore him, would be alive, he burst into tears at the instabil- 
ity of all human things. 

9. Most of the smaller cities of Greece submitted at the 
demand of the Persian monarch; of those which united 
to oppose him, Athens and Sparta took the lead. The 
Persian army advanced directly towards Athens, bearing 
down all before it until it came to the pass of Thermopylce, 
cm the east of Thessaly. On this spot, Leonidas, one of 
the kings of Sparta, with only 6,000 men, had taken his 
position in order to oppose its progress. Xerxes having 
arrived at this place, sent a herald to Leonidas command- 
ing him to deliver up his arms, to whom the noble Spartan 
replied in laconic brevity, " Come and take them." For 
two days the Persians endeavored to force their passage 
through the defile, but were repulsed with great slaughter; 
but having at length discovered a secret path leading to an 
eminence which overlooked the Grecian camp, and having 
gained this advantageous post, under the cover of the night, 
the defense of the pass became impossible. 

10. Leonidas foreseeing certain destruction, dismissed 
all his allies, retaining only 300 of his countrymen, and in 
obedience to a law of Sparta, which forbade her soldiers un- 
der any circumstances, to flee from an enemy, resolved to 



40 GREECE. 

devote his life for the good of his country. Animated by 
his example, the 300 Spartans under his command, deter- 
mined to abide the issue of the conflict. Leonidas fell 
among the first, bravely contending against the thousands 
of his enemies; of the 300 heroes, only one escaped to 
bear to Sparta the news, that her patriotic sons had died in 
her defense; and this surviver, after his return, felt him- 
self so disgraced at being alive, that he perished by his 
own hand. Aristodemus, another of the band, being ab- 
sent when the battle occurred, was considered so much dis- 
graced by this accident, that when he afterwards distin- 
guished himself at the battle of Plateea, he was neverthe- 
less, deemed unworthy of any share of the spoils. A 
monument was afterwards erected on the spot, to com- 
memorate this memorable battle, bearing this inscription, 
written by Simonides : 

Go, stranger, and to list'ning Spartans tell, 
That here, obedient to their Jaws, we fell. 

11. Xerxes having forced the pass of Thermopylee, di- 
rected his march towards Athens, laying waste the country 
as he advanced with fire and sword. The Athenians, hav- 
ing conveyed their women and children for safety, to the 
islands, retired to their fleet, leaving their city in the hands 
of the Persians, by whom it was pillaged and burnt. The 
only resource left to the Greeks, was placed in their fleet, 
therefore, they immediately commenced preparations for a 
naval engagement. Their fleet consisted of only 380 sail, 
under the command of Themistocles and Aristides, while 
that of the Persians, amounted to 1,200 vessels. The en- 
gagement took place in the straits of Salamis, which re- 
sulted in the total defeat of the Persian armament. Xerxes, 
who had seated himself upon an eminence, that he might 
behold the engagement, having seen the complete discom- 
fiture of his squadron, fled with precipitation, to the shores 
of the Hellespont. But to his great mortification, he found 
that the bridge of boats which he left, had been dsetroyed 
by a tempest; terrified however, at the valor displayed by 
the Greeks, his impatience would admit of no delay, he 
therefore, crossed the Hellespont in a fishing boat, to his 
own dominions. 

12. The Persian monarch left Mardoeins with 300,000 
men, to complete the conquest of Greece. This army, 
early in the following season, was met at Plataea, by the 



GREECE. 41 

combined forees of Athens and Sparta, consisting of 110,- 
000 men, under the command of Aristides and Pausanias, 
and was defeated with tremendous slaughter, Mardonius 
himself, being numbered among the slain. On the same 
day, the Greeks engaged and destroyed the remains of the 
Persian fleet, at the promontory of Mycale, near Ephesus. 
The Persian army was now completely destroyed, and 
Xerxes, having been frustrated in all his ambitious views, 
was soon afterwards assassinated, and was succeeded in 
the Persian throne by his son, Artaxerxes Longimanus, 
A. C. 464. 

13. At this period, the natural character of the Greeks, 
was at its highest elevation. The common danger had an- 
nihilated all partial jealousies between the states, and had 
given them union as a nation. Encouraged by their late 
victories, they resolved to bid defiance to the Persians ; 
they undertook to aid the Ionians, who had thrown off the 
yoke of Persia. The combined forces of Sparta and 
Athens, under the command of Pausanias and Cimon, ex- 
pelled the Persians from Thrace, destroyed their fleet on 
the coast of Pamphylia, took the island of Cyprus, and 
having reduced and plundered the city of Byzantium, they 
returned with immense booty. 

14. Pausanias, who had borne so distinguished a part in 
the late war, now became intoxicated with glory and pow- 
er, and aspired to the sovereign dominion of Greece. For 
this purpose, he wrote to Xerxes, offering to effect the 
subjugation of his country and to hold it under the domin- 
ion of Persia, on the condition of receiving his daughter 
in marriage. The treachery was detected before it could 
be carried into execution, and Pausanias, being condemned 
hy the ephori, took refuge in the temple of Minerva, where 
the sanctity of the place, secured him from violence; be- 
ing unable to escape from this asylum, he soon perished 
fay hunger. Themistocles, the great Athenian commander, 
being accused of participating in the treason of Pausanias, 
was banished from his country, by the ostracism. The 
exiled general, proceeded to Asia, wrote a letter to the Per- 
sian monarch, in which he said, "I, Themistocles, come 
to thee who have done thy house most ill of all the Greeks, 
while I was of necessity repelling the invasion of thy fa- 
ther, but yet more good, when I was in safety, and his re- 
turn was endangered." He was permitted to live in Per- 
sia in great splendor, but being required by Ariaxexes, to 
lake up arms against the Greeks, rather than sully his 

*2 



42 GREECE. 

former glory, by engaging in a war against his native coun- 
try, although that country had been ungrateful towards him ? 
he chose to suffer a voluntary death. 

15. Aristides, after the banishment of Themistocles, di- 
rected the affairs of Athens, and upon his death, which 
happened shortly afterwards, Cimon, the son of Miltiades, 
one of the most illustrious statesmen and warriors of 
Greece, became the most prominent man in the republic. 
He gained two important victories over the Persians on the 
same day, the one by sea and the other by land, near the 
river Eurymedon, in Asia Minor. But it was the charac- 
teristic of the Athenians, to treat their most distinguished 
citizens with ingratitude. Cimon, through the influence of 
faction, was banished by the ostracism, while Pericles, a 
young man of exalted talents, and extraordinary eloquence, 
succeeded in gaining the ascendency at Athens. 

16. Cimon however, after a banishment of five years, 
was recalled, and being restored to the command of the 
army, gained several other important victories over the 
Persians, and finally died of a wound he received at the 
seige of Cictium, in Cyprus. Shortly after this event, the 
Persian war, which had lasted with some slight intermis- 
sions, for about fifty years, was brought to a termination. 
Artaxerxes, weary of a war that only brought disgrace 
upon his arms, and weakened his resources, sued for 
peace, which was granted on condition, that fie should give 
freedom to all the Grecian cities in Asia, and that no Per- 
sian ship of war, should enter the Grecian seas. 

17. After the death of Cimon, Pericles rose to the sum- 
mit of power; he governed Athens with almost arbitrary 
sway, for near forty years ; he adorned the city with mas- 
ter-pieces of architecture, sculpture, and painting, patron- 
ized the arts and sciences, celebrated splendid games and 
festivals, and his administration forms an era of splendor 
and magnificence in the history of Greece. In all his 
public acts, he displayed the greatest moderation and pru- 
dence, and the end of all his projects, seems to have been 
the glory of his country, and the happiness of his fellow 
citizens. He died of a plague, which raged at Athens ; a 
little before his death, hearing some of his friends speak- 
ing of his achievements, he said, " You have forgotten the 
most glorious action of my life, which is, that I never 
caused a single citizen to put on mourning.'* 



GREECE. 



SECTION VI. 



43 



From the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, to the 
reign of Philip of Macedon. From A. C, 431, to 360. 

1. A few years previous to the death of Pericles, the 
Peloponnesian war was commenced, which grew out of 
the long continued rivalship between Alliens and Sparta, 
and for twenty-seven years, with little intermission, inflict- 
ed the deepest calamities upon the Grecian states. 

The origin of this war, seems to have been as follows: 
The inhabitants of Corcyra, while engaged in a contest 
with the Corinthians, applied for aid to the Athenians, who 
readily granted them assistance; this conduct on the part of 
the lat er, was deemed a violation of the treaty of the con- 
federate states of Peloponnesus, and war was immediately 
declared against Athens. 

2. Sparta, joined by all the Peloponnesian states, except 
Argos, which remained neutral, took the lead against the 
Athenians, who had but few allies. The Peloponnesian 
forces, under the command of Archidamus, the king of 
Sparta, amounted to 60,000, while the Athenian army, did 
not exceed 32,000, hut the fleet of the latter was much the 
superior. During the first year of the war, the confeder- 
ate forces entered Attica, laid waste the country, and be- 
sieged Athens ; in the second year, the city was visited by 
a dreadful plague, which carried off several thousands, and 
among its victims, was the renowned Pericles. The pes- 
tilence, however, did not arrest the progress of the war, 
which continued to rage with unahating fury. 

3. After the death of Pericles, Cleon grew into power, 
and for a short time, directed the Athenian councils ; but 
he was slain at Amphepotis, in a battle with Brasidas, the 
Spartan general, who was also mortally wounded in the 
same engagement. After this event, a treaty of peace was 
concluded between Athens and Sparta, through the influ- 
ence of Nicias, who now became the popular leader at 
Athens. Peace, however, was of short duration, war be- 
ing again declared, through the influence of Alcibiades, one 
of the greatest of the Athenian generals, and the most ac- 
complished orators of his time. 

4. An expedition was next sent against the island of 
Sicily, under the command of Alcibiades and Nicias, but 
the former being accused of misconduct, was recalled, and 



44 GREECE. 

the latter was totally defeated and slain, Alciblades, after 
some time, was again placed at the head of the Athenian 
army, and gained several important victories, but falling a 
second time into disrepute, he was banished from his coun- 
try, and took refuge in Asia, where he died. 

5. Lysander, the Lacedaemonian general, having defeated 
the Athenian fleet, at iEgos-Potamos, on the Hellespont, 
reduced Athens to the last extremity, by blockading the 
city both by sea and land. The wretched Athenians were 
at length compelled to accept the most humiliating terms 
of peace ; they agreed to demolish their port, to limit their 
fleet to twelve ships, and to undertake for the future, no 
military enterprise, but under the command of the Lacedae- 
monians. Thus ended the Peloponnesian war, by the sub- 
mission of Athens, and the triumph of Sparta, which now 
became the leading power in Greece. A. C, 403. 

6. Lysander, after the reduction of Athens, abolished the 
popular government of that state, and established in its 
place, an oligarchy, consisting of thirty magistrates, with 
absolute power, who, from their atrocious acts of cruelty, 
were called the Thirty Tyrants. In the space of eight 
months, we are told that, 1,500 citizens fell victims to 
their avarice and vengeance, while many others fled from 
their country. At length, Thrasybnlus, aided by a band of 
patriots, expelled the tyrants from the seat of their power, 
and restored the democratic form of government. 

7. An event, which happened about this time, reflected 
indelible disgrace upon the fickle-minded Athenians, which 
was, the persecution and death of the illustrious philoso- 
pher, Socrates, a name, at once the glory and the reproach 
of his country. The sophists, whose futile logic, he divi- 
ded and exposed, represented him as an enemy to the reli« 
gion of his country, because he attempted to introduce the 
knowledge of a supreme Being, the Creator and Ruler of 
the universe, and to inculcate the belief of a future state of 
retribution, and being accused, moreover, of corrupting the 
youth ; he was condemned by the assembly of Athens, to 
die by poison. 

8. He made his defense in person, with all the manly 
fortitude of conscious innocence, but the majority of his 
judges, being his personal enemies, determined on his ruin. 
During the forty days of his imprisonment, he conducted 
himself with the greatest dignity; refused to escape, when 
an opportunity offered ; conversed with his friends on sub- 
jects of moral philosophy, particularly the immortality of 



GREECE. 45 

the soul, and, when the appointed time arrived, drank the 
fatal cup of hemlock, and died with the utmost composure. 
After the fatal deed was accomplished, the Athenians be- 
gan to see the error, into which they had fallen ; his judges 
and accusers, were either put to death or banished from the 
city; a brazen statue was erected to his memory, the work- 
manship of the celebrated Lysippus. Thus they endeavor- 
ed to repair, in some degree, the injustice they had permit- 
ted against the most virtuous of their citizens. 

9. On the death of Darius, the Persian throne was left 
to his son, Artaxerxes II., but his younger brother, Cyrus, 
attempted to dethrone him, and for that purpose, he em- 
ployed about 13,000 Grecian troops; but both Cyrus, and 
the Grecian commander, were slain in a battle, which was 
fought at Cunaxa, near Babylon. The remainder of the 
Grecian army, which amounted to about 10,000, under the 
command of Xenophon, effected a most extraordinary re- 
treat, traversing a hostile country of 1,600 miles in extent, 
from Babylon to the shores of the Euxine. This celebra- 
ted return, usually called the retreat of ten thousand, is 
beautifully described by Xenophon himself, and is regard- 
ed as one of the most extraordinary exploits in military 
history. 

10. The Grecian colonies in Asia having taken part 
with Cyrus, were assisted by the Spartans, under their 
king Agesilaus. The Persian monarch however by means 
of bribes, induced Athens and other of the Grecian states, 
jealous of the power of the Lacedaemonians to enter into a 
league against them. Agesilaus was obliged to return in 
order to protect his own dominions ; he defeated the con- 
federate forces in the battle of Coronea, but the Spartan 
fleet was defeated by the Athenians under Conon near Cni- 
dos. A treaty of peace was finally concluded, by which it 
was agreed that all the Grecian cities of Asia should belong 
to Persia, and all others should be independent, with the 
exception of the islands of Lemnos, Scyros and Imbros, 
which should remain under the dominion of Athens. 

11. While Athens and Sparta were visibly tending to 
decline, Thebes emerged from obscurity, and rose for a 
time to a degree of splendor eclipsing all the other states of 
Greece. The Spartans, jealous of its growing prosperity, 
took advantage of some internal dissension and seized upon 
the citadel. Phelopidas, with a number of Thebians fled 
for protection to Athens, where he planned the deliverance 
of his country. Disguising himself and twelve of his 



46 GREECE, 

friends as peasants, he entered Thebes in the evening, and 
joining a patriotic party of citizens, they surprised the lead- 
ers of the usurpation amidst the tumult of a feast and put 
them all to death ; and pursuing his success in conjunction 
with his friend Epaminondas, who shared with him the 
glory of the enterprise, he finally succeeded in expelling 
the Lacedaemonian garrison from the Theban territory. 

12. A war necessarily ensued between Thebes and Spar- 
ta; the Theban army under the command of Phelopidas 
and Epaminondas, gained the memorable battle of Leuctra, 
in which they lost only 300 men, while the Spartan loss 
amounted to 4,000, together with their king Cleombrolus, 
who was numbered among the slain. The victorious The- 
bans under Epaminondas, joined by many of the other 
Grecian states, entered the territories of Lacedsemon and 
overran the country with fire and sword. The Spartans, 
who had long boasted that their women had never beheld 
the smoke of an enemy's camp, were mortified to see the 
invaders now encamped within the very sight of their 
capital. 

13. Having humbled the power of Sparta, the Theban 
commander returned with his victorious army to his native 
city; but the war being again renewed, he gained another 
great victory over the Lacedaemonians and Athenians at the 
battle of Mantinea; but he fell mortally wounded in the 
moment of victory. With the fall of Epaminondas, who 
Avas equally eminent as a philosopher, statesman and gen- 
eral, fell the glory of his country. 

The battle of Mantinea was followed by a peace between 
all the Grecian states, by which each city established its 
independence. 



SECTION VII. 

Philip of Macedon, The Exploits and Death of Alexan- 
der. From 360, to 324. 

1. Greece was now in the most abject situation. The 
spirit of patriotism appeareil utterly tossed and military 
glory at an end. Athens, at this time the most prominent 
state, was sunk in luxury and pleasure ; yet she was distin- 
guished for her cultivation of literature and the arts. Sparta 



GREECE. 47 

no less changed from the simplicity of her ancient manners, 
and her power weakened by the new independence of the 
state of Peloponnesus, was in no capacity to attempt a re- 
covery of her former greatness. Such was the situation of 
Greece, when Philip of Macedon, formed the ambitious de- 
sign of bringing the whole country under his dominion. 

2. The kingdom of Macedon had existed upwards of 
400 years; but it had not risen to any considerable emi- 
nence; it formed no part of the Greek confederacy and had 
no voice in the Amphiclyonic council. The inhabitants 
boasted of the same origin with the Greeks, but were con- 
sidered by the latter as barbarians. Philip, who laid the 
foundation of the Macedonian empire, or as it is some times 
called the Grecian empire, because Greece in its most ex- 
tensive sense included Macedonia, was sent as a hostage to 
Thebes, at the age of ten years, where he enjoyed the ad- 
vantage of an excellent education under Epaminondas. At 
the age of 24 years, he ascended the throne of Macedon by 
the popular voice, in violation of the natural right of the 
nearer heirs to the crown. 

3. Philip was possessed of great military and political 
talents, and was equally distinguished for his consummate 
artifice and address. In order to accomplish the subjuga- 
tion of the Grecian states, he cherished dissensions among 
them, and employed agents in each with a view of having 
every public measure directed to his advantage. The at- 
tempt of the Phocians to occupy and cultivate a track of 
land consecrated to the Delphian Apollo, gave rise to a con- 
test called the Sacred War, in which most of the states of 
Greece were involved. The Thebans, Thessalians and 
other states, undertook to punish the Phocians who were 
supported chiefly by Athens and Sparta. 

4. Philip proposed to act as arbitrator of the matter in 
dispute, and procured himself to be elected a member of 
the Amphictyonic council. Shortly after this event, the 
Locrians, having encroached upon the consecrated ground 
of Delphi, and having refused to obey the order of the 
Amphictyonic council, Philip was invited to vindicate their 
authority by force of arms. Philip began his hostilities by 
invading Phocis, the key to the territory of Attica. iEschi- 
ne?, the orator, bribed to his interest, endeavored to quiet 
the alarms of the Athenians, by ascribing to him a design 
only of punishing the sacrilege and vindicating the caus i 
of Apollo. Demosthenes, with the true spirit of a patriot, 
exposed the artful designs of the invader, and with most 



48 GREECE. 

animated eloquence, roused his countrymen to a vigorous 
effort for the preservation of their liberties. The event 
however was unsuccessful ; the battle of Cheronsea decided 
the fate of Greece, and subjected all the states to the do- 
minion of the king of Macedon, A. C, 337. 

5. It was not the policy of the conquerer to treat the 
several states as a vanquished people ; they were allowed 
to retain their separate independent governments, while he 
reserved for himself the direction and control of all national 
measures. Convoking a general council of the states, he 
laid before them his project for the invasion of Persia, and 
was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces of all the 
Grecian states. On the eve of this great enterprise, Philip 
was assassinated by Pausanias, the captain of his guards, 
while solemnizing the nuptials of his daughter, in the 47th 
year of his age. The news of the event caused the most 
tumultuous joy among the Athenians, who indulged the 
vain hope of again recovering their liberty ; but the vision- 
ary prospect was never realized ; the spirit of the nation 
was gone, and in all their subsequent revolutions, they only 
changed their masters. 

6. On the death of Philip, his son Alexander, surnamed 
the Great, succeeded to the throne of Macedon at the age 
of 20 years. The young king, having reduced to subjec- 
tion some of the states to the north of Macedon, turned the 
whole power of his arms against the revolted states of 
Greece. He defeated the Thebans with immense slaugh- 
ter, caused their city to be razed to the ground and 30,000 
of its inhabitants to be sold as slaves. These acts of severity 
so intimidated the other states of Greece, that they immedi- 
ately submitted to his dominion. Alexander then assembled 
the deputies of the Grecian states at Corinth, and renewed 
the proposal of invading Persia, and was appointed as his 
father had been, the commander-in-chief of their united 
forces. 

7. With an army of 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse, with 
the sum of only 70 talents, and provisions for a single 
month, he crossed the Hellespont, and traversing Phrygia, 
proceeded to the site of Troy, and visited the tomb of 
Achilles, whom he pronounced the most fortunate of men 
in having Patrocles for his friend and Homer for his pane- 
gyrist. Darius Codomanus resolving at once to crush the 
youthful hero, met him on the banks of the Granicus, with 
an army of 100,000 foot and 20,000 horse. Here an ob- 
stinate battle was fought, in which the Persian monarch 



GREECE. 49 

was defeated with a loss, according to Plutarch, of 22,000 
men, while the Macedonian loss was only 34. In this battle, 
Alexander escaped narrowly with his life. Being attacked 
by an officer, who was about to cleave his head with a bat- 
tle-axe, when the blow was prevented by Clytus, who cut 
off the hand of the officer with his cimiter and thus saved 
the life of his sovereign. 

8. The success of this battle was important to Alexander, 
as it put him in poosession of Sardis with all its rk'hes ; he 
generously gave the citizens their liberty, and permitted 
them to live under their own laws. He soon after took 
Miletus, Halicarnassus, and other important places. The 
next important victory was obtained in the great battle of 
Issus. The Persian army consisting of 600,000 men, was 
defeated with prodigious slaughter, no less than 110,000 
being killed, while the Macedonians numbered only 450 
among the slain. The mother, wife and two daughters of 
Darius fell into the hands of the conqueror, who treated 
them with the greatest delicacy and respect. Darius, on 
hearing of the kindness of Alexander towards his family, 
offered for their ransom the sum of 10,000 talents, (about 
£2, 000, 000 sterling,) and proposed a treaty of peace and 
alliance, with the further offer of his daughter in marriage 
and all the country between the Euphrates and the iEgaaan 
sea. 

9. When the offer was laid before Alexander's council, 
Parmenio is reported to have said, " If I were Alexander, 
I would accept the terms;" "and so would I," replied 
Alexander, " where I. Parmenio." After this he overran 
Syria, took Damascus, and laid siege to Tyre, which sur- 
rendered after a noble defense of seven months. On this 
occasion, the conqueror exercised an act of barbarous cruelty 
by causing 2,000 citizens of Tyre to be crucified, besides 
all those who were put to the sword or sold into slavery. 
He then directed his march towards Jerusalem, which he 
entered without opposition. Having taken the city of Gaza, 
he unhumanly sold ten thousand of its inhabitants into sla- 
very, and dragged Betis, its illustrious defender, at the 
wheels of his chariot, in imitation of Achilles, after the 
taking of Troy. 

10. Alexander next proceeded to Egypt, which readily 
submitted to his arms ; and with incredible fatigues, he led 
his army through the deserts of Lybia to visit the temple 
of Jupiter-Ammon, and caused himself to be proclaimed 
the son of that deity. On his return, he commenced the 



50 GREECE. 

building of the city of Alexandria, afterwards the capital of 
Lower Egypt, and for a time, one of the greatest commer- 
cial cities in the world : he is said to have founded twenty 
other cities during the course of his conquests. Returning 
from Egypt, he again received proposals from Darius, who 
offered to surrender to him the whole of his dominions to 
the west of the Euphrates; but he haughtily rejected the 
offer, saying, that " the world could no more admit two 
masters than of two suns." 

11. Having crossed the Euphrates, he was met at the 
village of Arabela by Darius, at the head of 700,000 men. 
A tremendous battle insued, in which the Persians were 
defeated with a loss of 300,000 men, while that of Alex- 
ander was only about 500. This great battle decided the 
fate of Persia. Darius, first escaped to Media and after- 
wards into Bactria, where he was betrayed by Bessus, the 
satrap of that province, and murdered ; and shortly after this 
event the whole Persian empire submitted to the conqueror. 

12. Alexander now projected the conquest of India, and 
having penetrated beyond the Hydaspes, he defeated Porus, 
the illustrious king of that country. He still continued his 
march to the East; but when he arrived at the banks of the 
Ganges, his soldiers seeing no end to their toils, refused to 
proceed any further, and demanded that they might be per- 
mitted to return to their country. Finding it impossible to 
overcome their reluctance, he returned to the Indus, and 
pursuing his course southward by that river, he arrived at 
the ocean, and sending his fleet to the Persian Gulf, he led 
his army across the desert to Persepolis, which in a fit of 
frenzy, he ordered to be set on fire. From Persepolis he 
returned to Babylon, which he chose as the seat of his 
Asiatic empire; here giving himself up to every excess, he 
was seized with a vio ! ent fever, brought on by excessive 
intemperance, and thus died in the 33d year of his age, and 
1 3th of his reign. A. C., 324. 

13. Perceiving that his end was approaching, he raised 
himself upon his elbow and presented his dying hand to 
his soldiers to kiss. Being asked to whom he left his em- 
pire, he answered, "To the most worthy." Alexander 
was the most renowned hero of antiquity. He possessed 
talents which might have rendered him distinguished as a 
statesman and a benefactor of mankind, but it was to his 
military exploits alone, that he is entitled to the surname of 
Great. In the early part of his career, he was distinguished 
for self-government, and exhibited many noble and gener- 



GREECE. 51 

ous traits of character. But when intoxicated with his ex- 
traordinary success, he gave himself up to unbounded indul- 
gence and to deeds of cruelty and ingratitude. He caused 
Parmenio, his most distinguished general, who had assisted 
him in gaining all his victories, to be assassinated on mere 
suspicion. His friend Clytus, who had saved his life in the 
battle of the Granicus, he struck dead upon the spot, be- 
cause he contradicted him when heated with wine. He 
caused the philosopher Callisthines to be put to death, for 
refusing to pay him divine honors. (See particulars of his 
character in the Biography.) 



SECTION VIII, 

From the Death of Alexander, to the subjugation of 
Greece by the Romans. From Ji. C, 324 to 146. 

1. Alexander having named no successor, his vast em- 
pire was divided into thirty-three governments, and distrib- 
uted among as many of the principal officers. Hence arose 
a series of intrigues, fierce and sanguinary wars, which re- 
sulted in the total extinction of every member of Alexan- 
der's family, and finally terminated in a new division of the 
empire into four kingdoms : namely, that of Egypt under 
Ptolemy; Macedonia, including Greece, under Cassander; 
Thrace, together with Bithynia, under Lysimachus ; and 
Syria, under Seleucus. 

2. From the period of Alexander's death, the history of 
the Grecian states to the time of their subjugation by the 
Romans, presents only a series of uninteresting revolutions. 
When the news of this event reached Athens, Demosthenes 
once more made a noble effort to vindicate the national 
freedom, and to arouse his countrymen to shake off the 
yoke of Macedon. His counsels so far prevailed, that the 
Greeks formed a confederacy, for the purpose of recover- 
ing their liberty; but they were finally defeated by Antipa- 
ter, and Athens was obliged to purchase a peace by the 
sacrifice of ten of her public speakers, among whom the 
renowned orator Demosthenes was included. But to avoid 
falling into the hands of his enemies, he put an end to his 
own life by taking poison. 



52 GREECE. 

3. Under the administration of Polysperchon, who sue 
ceeded Antipater in the government of Macedon, indepen 
dence for a short time was restored lo the Grecian states 
Scenes of turbulence were soon renewed among the Athe 
nians; they put to death many of the friends of Antipater 
and among the rest, was the venerable Phocion, now up 
wards of 80 years of age. He was eminent in his public 
character and private virtues, and had been forty-five times 
governor of Athens. To a friend who lamented his fate 
he said, "This is only what I long expected : it is thus 
that Athens has rewarded her most illustrious citizens." 

Cassander, who succeeded Polysperchon, appointed De 
metrius Phalereus governor of Athens. Under his wise 
administration, which continued twelve years, the city en 
joyed a considerable degree of prosperity, and the Atheni 
ans to testify their gratitude, erected no less than 360 statues 
to his memory. 

4. The last effort made to revive the expiring liberty o; 
Greece, was the formation of the Achaean league, which 
was a union of twelve of the smaller states for that object 
The government of this confederacy was committed to Ara- 
tus, a young man of eminent abilities, who took the title ol 
prastor. He formed the noble design of liberating his coun- 
try from the dominion of Macedon, and establishing the in- 
dependence of all Greece ; but the jealousy of some of the 
principal states, particularly of Sparta, rendered the plan 
abortive. 

Aratus was succeeded by Philopcemen, who triumphed 
over the Spartans and iEtolians, but in an expedition against 
the Messenians, who had revolted, he was defeated and 
slain. Pnilopaemen was styled the "last of the Greeks," 
because after him Greece produced no leader worthy of her 
former glory. 

5. The Macedonians having declared war against the 
iEtolians, the latter applied for aid to the Romans, who 
now became the most powerful nation in the world. The 
offer was joyfully accepted by the Romans, who had long 
wished for an opportunity of adding to their dominion this 
devoted country ; their army under the command of Quin- 
trus Flaminius, defeated Philip, king of Macedon, and pro- 
claimed liberty to all the Grecian slates. About thirty 
years after this event, the Romans, under the command of 
Paulus iEmilius, again invaded Greece, in a war with Per- 
seus, the son of Philip, who was entirely defeated in the 
battle of Pydna, and falling into the hands of the conqueror 



GREECE. 53 

ith all his family, he was led captive to Rome, to grace 
le triumph of the general, and Macedonia was reduced to 
Roman province. A. C, 167. 

6. The Romans already jealous of the power of the 
chaean league, endeavored to weaken it by cherishing 
visions among the states, and sought the earliest oppor- 
nity of again unsheathing the sword against Greece. At 
ngth, the Spartans in a contest with the Achaean states, 
)plied for assistance to Rome. The Romans, under the 
)mmand of Metellus, marched into Greece and gained a 
)mplete victory over the Achaean army. The consul 
lummius, completed the conquest by taking and destroying 
le city of Corinth, in which the remainder of the Achaean 
•rces had taken refuge. The Achaean constitution was 
ssolved, and all Greece was reduced to a Roman province, 
ider the name of Achaia. A. C., 146. 

7. In reviewing the history of this extraordinary people, 
e find much to admire and much to condemn. In point 
'genius, taste, learning, patriotism, and valor, the Greeks 
r surpassed all the other nations of antiquity. With re- 
ird to their forms of government, they were far from cor- 
isponding in practice, with what they expressed in theory, 
ven in the palmiest days of Greece, we look in vain for 
iat beautiful idea presented by a well-regulsted common- 
ealth. The condition of the people frequently partook 
lore of servitude than of liberty. Slaves formed the great 
lajority of the inhabitants of the Grecian states ; and bond- 
re, being a consequence of the contraction of debt, even 
y free men, a great proportion of these were subject to the 
Tannical control of their fellow-citizens. They were 
erpetually divided into factions, and torn by internal dis- 
3nsions, which finally led to the subversion of their liber- 
es. 

8. In pursuing the history of Athens, the mind is forcibly 
ruck with the injustice and ingratitude frequently mani- 
sted towards the most illustrious of her citizens. Miltia- 
3s, Aristides,Themistocles, Phocion, Cimon and Socrates, 
ere all sentenced to death or banishment, yet the Atheni- 
is with their characteristic fickleness and inconstancy, did 
nple justice to their merits, and sought to punish those by 
horn they were accused. The most remarkable circum- 
ance which strikes us, in comparing the latter with the 
ore early period of Grecian history, is the total change in 
te genius and spirit of the people. The ardor of patriot- 



54 GREECE. 

ism, the thirst for military glory and love of liberty, decline 
with the rising grandeur of the nation ; while a taste for the 
fine arts, a love of science and the refinements of luxury 
are introduced. 



SECTION IX. 

Grecian Antiquities. 



Philosophy. Philosophy among the Greeks, was divi- 
ded into various sects or schools. Of these, the Ionic sect 
was the most ancient, founded by Thales, A. C, 640. He 
was eminently distinguished for his knowledge of geome- 
try and astronomy, and taught the belief of a first cause, 
and overruling providence, but supposed the Deity to ani- 
mate the universe, as the soul does the body. 

The Italian or Pythagorean sect, was founded by Pyth- 
agoras, who taught the transmigration of souls through dif- 
ferent bodies, and believed the earth to be a sphere, the 
planets to be inhabited, and fixed stars to be the suns and 
centers of other systems. 

The Socratic school was founded by Socrates, who was 
esteemed the wisest and most virtuous of the Greeks, and 
the father of moral philosophy. He taught the belief of a 
first cause, whose beneficence is equal to his power, the 
Creator and Ruler of the universe. He inculcated the im- 
mortality of the soul, and a future state of rewards and 
punishments. 

The Synics, a sect founded by Antisthenes, and support- 
ed by Diogesnes, condemned knowledge as useless, re- 
nounced social enjoyments and conveniences of life, and 
indulged themselves in scurrility and invective. 

The Academic sect was founded by Plato, a philosopher 
whose doctrines have had a more extensive influence over 
the minds of mankind, than those of any other of the an- 
cients. Plato had the most sublime ideas of the Deity and 
his attributes. He taught that the human soul was a por- 
tion of the divinity, and that this alliance with the eternal 
mind, might be improved into actual intercourse with the 
supreme Being, by abstracting the soul from all the corrup- 
tions it derives from the body. He gave his lectures in the 
grove of A-oademus, near Athens. 



GREECE. 55 

The Peripaletic sect, was founded by Aristotle, who es- 
tablished his school in the Lyceum, at Athens. His phi- 
losophy was taught in the schools for 1,600 years. 

The Skeptical sect, was founded by Phyrrbo, who in- 
culcated universal doubt as the only true wisdom. There 
was, in his opinion, no essential difference between vice 
and virtue, further than as human compact had discrimina- 
ted them. Tranquility of mind, he considered to be the 
greatest happiness, and this was to be attained by absolute 
indifference to all dogmas or opinions. 

The Stoic sect, was founded by Zeno. The Stoics in- 
culcated fortitude of mind, denied that pain is an evil, and 
endeavored to raise themselves above all the passions and 
feelings of humanity. They taught, that virtue consists 
in accommodating the dispositions of the mind, to the im- 
mutable laws of nature, and vice in opposing these laws ; 
they regarded vice, therefore, as folly, and virtue, the only 
true wisdom. 

The Epicureans, named from Epicurus, the founder of 
the sect, maintained that the supreme happiness of man, 
consisted in pleasure. 

The principal of all things was, a subject of special re- 
search by the philosophers of Greece. Thales taught that 
this principle consisted of water; Anaxagoras, of infinite 
air; Heractilus, of fire; Democritus, of atoms; Pythago- 
ras, of unity; Plato, of God, idea and matter; Aristotle, 
of matter, form, and privation; Zeno, of God and matter; 
Epicurus, of matter and empty space. 

The Seven Wise Men. The seven wise men of Greece, 
were Thales, of Miletus ; Solon, of Athens ; Bias, of Pri- 
ene; Chilo, of Lacedaemon ; Pittacus, of Mitylene ; Cleo- 
bulus, of Lindos ; and Periander, of Corinth. Instead of 
Periander, some enumerate Myson, and others Annacharsis. 

The Council of the Amphictyons. This council is 
supposed to have been instituted by Amphictyon, the son 
of Deucalion, king of Thessaly, at an early period of the 
history of Greece. It consisted at first, of twelve deputies 
from the twelve different cities or states ; but the number 
was afterwards increased to thirty. They met twice a 
year; in the spring at Delphi, and in the autumn at Ther- 
mopylae. The objects of this assembly, were to unite in 
strict unity, the states which were represented ; to consult 
for their mutual welfare and defense ; to decide all differ- 
ences between cities, and to try offenses against the laws 
cf nations. 



56 GREECE. 

Public Games. There were four public and solemn 
games in Greece, namely, the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, 
and Isthmian. The exercises practiced at these games, 
were leaping, running, throwing, boxing, and wrestling ; 
also the horse and chariot races, and contests between the 
poets, orators, musicians, philosophers, and artists. 

The Olympic games were instituted by Hercules, in 
honor of Jupiter Olympus, A. C, 1222 years; they were 
celebrated in the town of Olympia, in the first month of 
every fifth year, and lasted five days. The space between 
one celebration to another, was called an Olympiad, by 
which the Greeks computed their time. The prize be- 
stowed on the victor was a crown of olive; yet trifling as 
was this reward, it was considered as the highest honor, 
and was sought for with the utmost eagerness. The vic- 
tor was greeted with loud acclamations, and his return home 
was in the style of a warlike conqueror. 

The Pythean games were celebrated every fifth year, in 
the second of every Olympiad, near Delphi, in honor of 
Apollo. The reward of the victors was a crown of laurel. 

The Nemean games were celebrated in the town of Ne- 
mea, every third year. The victors were crowned with 
parsley. 

The Isthmian games, so called from being celebrated on 
the isthmus of Corinth, were instituted in honor of Nep- 
tune, and observed every third or fifth year ; they were 
held so sacred, that even a public calamity could not pre- 
vent their celebration. The victors were rewarded with a 
garland of pine leaves. 

Literature. No nation of ancient or modern times, 
surpassed the Greeks in literary taste and genius. In sub- 
sequent ages, great advances have been made in science, 
and in some of the branches of polite learning ; yet in 
chaste aud beautiful composition, in brilliancy of fancy, in 
sweetness of periods, in various forms of intellectual ef- 
forts, under the name of poetry, oratory, and history, they 
are still unrivalled. 

Poetry in Greece, was extremely ancient; it was even 
cultivated before the introduction of letters. In epic poe- 
try, Homer stands unrivalled in ancient or modern times. 
In lyric poetry, the names, Anacreon, Sappho, and Pindar, 
have attained imperishable fame. 

Oratory was cultivated among the Greeks, particularly 
the Athenians, with the utmost care. The study of elo- 
quence formed the principal employment of the young cit- 



GREECE. 57 

izens at Athens. It was that which opened the way to the 
highest offices, reigned absolute in the assemblies, decided 
the most important affairs of the state, and an almost un- 
limited power to those who had the talent of oratory in an 
eminent degree. Music was cultivated with great success, 
and was considered an essential part in the education of the 
youth. The ancients ascribed to it, wonderful effects ; 
they believed it well calculated to calm the passions, soften 
the manners, and even to harmonize nations naturally bar- 
barous and savage. Dancing was also cultivated with much 
attention and care. 

Arts. In the more useful and necessary arts of life, the 
Greeks were never greatly distinguished. But in those 
which are termed the fine arts, Greece far surpassed all 
other nations of antiquity; and those specimens which 
have survived the wreck of time, are regarded as models of 
imitation, and are acknowledged as standards of excellence, 
in the judgment of the most polished nations of modem 
times. During the administration of Pericles, which is 
called the golden age of the Grecian arts, architecture, sculp- 
ture and painting were carried to the summit of perfection. 
The architecture consisted of three distinct orders, the Do- 
ric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. The Doric has a mas- 
culine grandeur, and a superior air of strength to both the 
other orders. It is therefore, well adapted to works of great 
magnitude. Of this order, is the temple of Theseus, at 
Athens, built ten years after the battle of Marathon, and ig 
almost entire at the present day. 

The Ionic is distinguished for its elegance and simplici- 
ty, the latter quality being essentially requisite in true 
beauty. Of this order were the temple of Apollo, at Mil- 
etus, the temple of the Delphic oracle, and the temple of 
Diana, at Ephesus. The Corinthian affected the highest 
magnificence and ornament, by uniting the characters of all 
the orders. 

In sculpture, the Greeks excelled no less than in archi- 
tecture. Specimens of their skill in this respect, are per- 
fect models. The dying Gladiator, the Venus, and the 
Laocoon of the Grecian sculptors, have an imperishable 
fame. 

In painting, though very few specimens have descended 
to us, they are supposed to have Excelled. The produc- 
tions of Zeuxis, Apelles, Timanthes, and others which 
perished, were highly extolled by the writers of antiquity, 
3 



58 GREECE. 

Private and Domestic Life. The dress of the Greeks 
differed much from that of most of the modern nations. 
The men wore an inner garment called a tunic, over which 
they threw a mantle; their shoes or sandals, were fastened 
under the soles of their feet with thongs. The women, 
particularly at Athens, wore a white tunic, which was close- 
ly bound with a broad sash, and descended in graceful folds 
to the ground; also a shorter robe, confined round the waist 
with a ribbon, and bordered at the bottom with stripes of 
various colors. Over this, they sometimes put on a robe, 
which was worn much like the present scarf. In the ear- 
lier ages of Greece, the inhabitants usually wore no cover- 
ing on their heads, but in after times, they made use of a 
kind of hat, tied under the chin. The women, however, 
always had their heads covered. The Athenians wore in 
their hair, a golden grasshopper, as an emblem of the an- 
tiquity of their nation, intimating that they sprung from 
the earth. In Sparta, the kings, magistrates, and citizens 
were but little distinguished by dress. The military cos- 
tume was of a red color. 

The meals of the Greeks, were usually four in number. 
The breakfast was taken about the rising of the sun ; the next 
meal at mid-day; then came the afternoon repast, and last- 
ly, the supper, which was the principal meal. Every thing 
capable of sustaining life, was used as food, though they 
were generally fond offish ; water and wine were the usual 
drink. At first they sat upright at their meals ; but as lux- 
ury prevailed, couches were introduced, on which the 
guests reclined while at table. Marriage among the Greeks 
was only lawful as the consent of the parents or other rela- 
tives could be obtained. Polygamy was allowed, only af- 
ter great calamities, such as war or pestilence. 

The Grecian women seldom appeared in strange com- 
pany, but were confined to the remote parts of the house, 
into which no male visitor was admitted. When they went 
abroad, they wore veils to conceal their faces. It was dis- 
reputable, however, for them to appear much abroad. Chil- 
dren were required to maintain their parents in old age ; 
but according to the laws of Solon, parents who did not 
bring up their children to some useful employment, could 
not exact a support from them. 

The funerals of the Greeks were attended with many 
ceremonies, showing that they considered the duties be- 
longing to the dead, to be of the highest importance. In 
their view, it was the most awful of all imprecations, to 



GREECE. 59 

Wish that a person might be deprived of funeral honors. 
(For oracles and religion of the Greeks, see Mythology.) 

Of some of the peculiar institutions of Greece, the court 
of Areopagus and Ostracism, were most remarkable. The 
Areopagus, which signifies the Hill of Mars, from the place 
where it was held, was the most distinguished and venera- 
ble court of justice, in ancient times ; and took cognizance 
of crimes, abuses and innovations, either in religion or 
government. The Areopagites were the guardians of edu- 
cation, and manners, and inspected the laws. To laugh in 
this assembly, was an unpardonable act of levity. 

One of the absurd peculiarities in the government of 
Athens, was the practice of the Ostracism ; this was a bal- 
lot of all the citizens, in which each wrote down the name 
of the individual most offensive to him ; and he, who was 
marked out by the greatest number of votes, was banished 
from his country for a specified time, often for a number of 
years. It was not necessary that any crime should be al- 
legded ; neither the property nor the honor of the exile, sus- 
tained the least injury. By this institution, the most flagrant 
injustice was often committed against the most virtuous 
citizens. 

Origin of Tragedy. Tragedy owes its origin to the 
feasts of Bacchus, usually celebrated at the time of the vin- 
tage, and at first, consisted of a few rude comic scenes, in- 
termixed with songs in praise of that god. Thespis, owing 
to several improvements, which he made in tragedy, is gen- 
erally esteemed its inventor, although there were several 
tragic and comic poets before his time. He carried the ac- 
tors about in carts, whereas before, they were accustomed 
to sing or recite in the streets wherever chance led them ; 
he also caused their faces to be smeared over with lees of 
wine, instead of acting without disguise, as at first; and he 
introduced a character among the chorus, who, to give the 
actors time to rest, repeated the adventures of some illus- 
trious person. The alterations which Thespis made in 
tragedy, gave room for iEschylus to make still further im- 
provements. He was a man of superior genius, and took 
upon himself to reform rather than to create tragedy in the 
new. He gave masks to his actors, adorned them with 
robes and trains, and made them wear buskins. Instead of 
a cart, he erected a stage of a moderate elevation, and en- 
tirely changed their style, which from being merely bur- 
lesque, became majestic and serious. But the most impor- 
tant and essential addition of JSschylus, consisted in the 



60 GREECE. 

vivacity and spirit of the action sustained by the dialogue 
of the persons of the drama, introduced by him — in the 
artful working up, the stronger passions, especially of ter- 
ror and pity, which by alternately afflicting and agitating 
the soul with mournful and terrible objects, produce a grate- 
ful pleasure and delight from that very trouble and emo- 
tion ; and lastly, in the choice of his subjects, which were 
always great, noble, interesting, and contained within due 
bounds, by the unity of time, place, and action. Of the 
ninety tragedies composed by iEschylus, only seven are 
now extant. 

iEschylus was in the sole possession of the glory of the 
stage, when a young rival made his appearance in the per- 
son of Sophocles, to dispute with him the palm. Twenty 
times he obtained the prize of poetry over his competitors* 
Of one hundred and twenty tragedies, which he composed, 
only seven are now extant, but these prove him to have 
carried the drama almost to perfection. 

Euripides, was the cotemporary and the great rival of 
Sophocles. Of his seventy-five tragedies, nineteen only 
remain. 



ROME 



SECTION I. 

From the foundation of the City, to the expulsion of Tar- 
quin, the last king of Home. 

1. The early history of this celebrated empire, like that 
of the other nations of antiquity, is greatly involved in ob- 
scurity. According to the account of poets, iEneas, a Tro- 
jan prince, having escaped from the destruction of his native 
city, after a variety of adventures, landed on the shores of 
Italy, where he was kindly received by Latinus, king of 
the Latins, who gave him his daughter Lavinia in marriage, 
and made him heir to his throne. The succession continued 
in the family of iEneas for about 400 years, until the reign 
of Numitor, who was the fifteenth king in a direct line 
from the Trojan hero. 

2. Rhea Sylvia, the daughter of Numitor, was the mother 
of twin brothers, named Romulus and Remus. The mother, 
who had been a vestal virgin, was condemned to be buried 
alive, the usual punishment for vestals who had suffered a 
violation of their chastity ; and the twins were ordered to 
be thrown into the Tyber. But as the water into which 
they were cast, was too shallow to drown them, they were 
discovered and rescued from their perilous situation by 
Faustulus, the king's herdsman, who brought them up as 
his own children. After a variety of adventures, Romulus 
and Remus, we are told, were instrumental in restoring 
Numitor, their grandfather, to his throne, from which he 
had been expelled by the usurpation of his brother Aumu- 
lius. 

3. Subsequent to this event, the two brothers resolved to 
build a city on the hills, where they had passed their youth 
and formerly tended their flocks ; but a contest arose be- 



62 ROME. 

tween them relative to the sovereignty, which proved fatal 
to Remus ; it is related that he was killed by his brother, 
who struck him dead upon the spot, for contemptuously 
leaping over the city wall. 

Romulus being thus left the sole commander, persevered 
in the building of the city, which from his own name, he 
called Rome ; and having been elected the first king, he 
made it the asylum for fugitives, and by this means the 
number of inhabitants rapidly increased. 

4. The newly elected monarch is said to have divided 
the people into three tribes, each consisting of ten curice ; 
and also into two orders of patricians and plebeians. The 
senate consisted of one hundred of the principal citizens ; it 
was afterwards increased to two hundred members. Be- 
sides a guard of 300 men to attend his person, the king 
was always preceded by 12 lictors, armed with axes bound 
up in a bundle of rods ; the duty of the lictors, was to 
execute the laws. These wise regulations contributed daily 
to increase the strength of the new city ; multitudes flocked 
to it from the adjacent towns, and women only were want- 
ed to confirm its growing prosperity. Romulus, in order 
to supply this deficiency, invited the Sabines, a neighboring 
nation, to a festival in honor of Neptune ; and while the 
strangers were intent upon the spectacle, a number of the 
Roman youth rushed in among them, and seized the young- 
est and most beautiful of the women and carried them off 
by violence. 

5. A sanguinary war insued, which had brought the city 
almost to the brink of ruin, when an accommodation was 
happily effected, through the interposition of the Sabine 
women who had been carried off by the Romans. Romu- 
lus reigned thirty-seven years ; and after his death, received 
divine honors under the name of Quirinus. 

6. On the death of Romulus, Numa Pompilius, a native 
of Cures, a Sabine city, was elected the second king of 
Rome. He softened the fierce and warlike disposition of 
the Romans, by cultivating the arts of peace, and inculcat- 
ing obedience to the laws and respect for religion. He built 
the temple of Janus, which was to be open during war and 
shut in time of peace. He died at the age of eighty, after 
a reign of forty-three years. 

7. Tullus Hostilius was the third king of Rome. His 
reign is memorable for the combat between the Horatii and 
Curiatii, which is said to have taken place during a war 
against the Albans. There were at the time, in each army, 



ROME. 63 

three brothers of one birth ; those of the Romans, called 
tiie Horatii, and those of the Albans, the Curiatii, all six 
remarkable for their strength, activity and courage; to these, 
it was resolved, to commit the fate of the two parties. 
Finally the champions met in combat; the contest was for 
some time obstinate and doubtful ; victory at length declared 
in favor of Rome : the three Curiatii were slain and only 
one of the Horatii survived. By this victory, the Romans 
became masters of Alba. Hostilius died after a reign of 
thirty-two years. 

8. After the death of the late monarch, Ancus Marcius, 
the grandson of Numa, was eleeted the fourth king of Rome. 
He conquered the Latins and suppressed the insurrections 
of the Vientes, Fidinates and Yolsei. But his victories 
over his enemies, were far less important than his exertions 
in fortifying and embelishing the city ; he erected a prison 
for malefactors, and built the port of Ostia at the mouth of 
the Tyber. Ancus died in the twenty-fourth year of his 
reign. 

9. Tarquinius Priscus, or Tarquin the elder, the son of 
a merchant of Corinth, next succeeded to the throne. His 
reign is chiefly distinguished for his triumph over the Sa- 
bines and Latins, and by the embellishment of the city with 
works of utility and magnificence ; he built the walls of 
hewn stone, erected the circus, founded the capitol and con- 
structed the sewers or aqueducts for the purpose of drain- 
ing the city of the rubbish and superfluous waters. Tar- 
quin was assassinated in the fifty-sixth year of his age and 
in the thirty-eighth of his reign. 

10. Servius Tullius, who was the son of a female slave, 
and son-in-law of the late monarch, secured his election to 
the throne, through the intrigues of Tanaquil, his mother- 
in-law. In order to determine the increase or diminution 
of his subjects, he instituted the census, by which, at the 
end of every fifth year, the number of the citizens, their 
dwellings and the amount of their property were ascertained. 
The census was closed by an expiatory sacrifice, called a 
lustrum ; hence the period of five years was usually called 
a lustrum. 

11. Servius, in the early part of his reign, had married 
his two daughters to the two sons of Tarquin, the late king, 
whose names were Tarquin and Aruns. But as their dis- 
positions corresponded with those of his daughters, he took 
care to give Tullia, the younger, who was of a violent dis- 
position to Aruns, who was mild, and the elder to Tarquin, 



64 ROME. 

who was haughty and ambitious, hoping thereby, that they 
would correct each others defects. Tarquin and Tullia, 
however, murdered their consorts and were shortly after- 
wards intermarried: and as one crime is often productive 
of another, they caused the assassination of Servius, after 
which, Tarquin usurped the throne. Tullia, in her eager- 
ness to salute her husband as king, is said to have driven 
her chariot over the dead body of her father, which lay ex- 
posed in the street which led to the senate. Thus died 
Servius Tullius, after a useful and prosperous reign of forty- 
four years. 

12. Tarquin, surnamed the proud, having placed himself 
upon the throne, as we have seen, soon disgusted the peo- 
ple by his tyranny and cruelty. He refused the late king's 
body a burial, under the pretense of his having been a usur- 
per : and conscious of being hated by all virtuous persons, 
he ordered all those whom he suspected to have been at- 
tached to Servius, to be put to death. 

To divert the attention of the people from his illegal 
method of obtaining the crown, he kept them constantly 
employed either in wars, or in erecting public buildings. 
While besieging Ardea, a small town not far from Rome, 
Sextus, his son, left the camp to visit the house of Collati- 
nus, under the mask of friendship. He was kindly received 
by the virtuous Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, who did 
not in the least suspect his criminal design. 

13. At midnight he entered her chamber with a drawn 
sword in his hand, and threatened her with instant death 
if she offered to resist. Lucretia, though seeing death so 
near, was yet inexorable; until being told if she did not 
yield, he would first kill her, and then laying his own slave 
dead by her side, would report that he found and killed 
them both in a criminal act. 

Thus the terror of infamy achieved what death could not 
obtain. In the mean time Lucretia, resolving not to pardon 
herself even for the crime of another, sent for her husband, 
Collatinus, and Spurius, her father, who brought with them 
Junius Brutus, the reputed idiot, whom they accidently met 
in the way. They found her overwhelmed with grief and 
endeavored in vain to console her. " No never," she re- 
plied, " never shall I find any thing in this world worth 
living for after having lost my honor ;" and drawing a 
poignard from beneath her robe, she plunged it into her 
own bosom, and expired without a groan. 



ROME. 65 

14. The body of Lucretia was brought out and exposed 
to view in the public forum, where Brutus, who had hith- 
erto acted as an idiot, in order to elude the cruelty of Tar- 
quin, inflamed the ardor of the citizens by displaying the 
horrid transaction. He obtained a decree of the senate, 
that Tarquin and his family should be forever banished from 
Rome ; at the same time making it capital for any one to 
plead for his return. That monarch was accordingly ex- 
pelled from his kingdom, in the twenty-fifth year of his 
reign, and the regal government was abolished after it had 
continued 244 years. 



SECTION II. 

From the abolition of the regal power to the first Punic 
War. A. C, 509, to 449. 

1. The regal authority having been abolished, a repub- 
lican form of government was established on its ruins. The 
supreme power was still reserved to the senate and people, 
but instead of a king, two magistrates, called consuls, were 
annually chosen, with all authority, privileges, and ensigns 
of royalty. Brutus, the deliverer of this country, and Col- 
latinus, the husband of Lucretia, were chosen the first con- 
suls of Rome. 

2. But scarcely had the new republic began to exist, 
when a conspiracy was formed for its destruction. Some 
young men of the principal families of the state, who had 
been educated about the king, and had shared in all the 
luxuries and pleasures of the court, formed a party in 
Rome, in favor of Tarquin, and undertook to re-establish 
the monarchy. Their design was fortunately discovered 
before it could be carried into execution: and, surprising as 
it may appear, the two sons of Brutus were found among 
the number of the conspirators. Few situations could be 
more affecting then that of Brutus ; — a father and a judge ; 
impelled by justice to condemn; by nature to spare the 
children he loved. 

Being brought to trial before him, they were condemned 

to be beheaded in his presencej while the father beheld the 

sad spectacle with unaltered countenance. He ceased to be 

a father, as it has been beautifully observed, that he might 

3* 



66 ROME. 

execute the duties of the consul, and choose to live bereft 
of his children, rather than to neglect the public punishment 
of crime. 

3. The insurrection in the city being thus suppressed, 
Tarquin now resolved to regain his former throne by for- 
eign assistance, and having prevailed upon the Vientes to 
aid him, advanced towards Rome at the head of a consider- 
able army ; but he was defeated by the Romans, under the 
command of the two consuls, Brutus and Valerius, who had 
been elected in the place of Coliatinus. But while the Ro- 
mans rejoiced in the victory they obtained, they had to la- 
ment the death of Brutus, who fell in the engagement, and 
the Roman matrons honored his memory by wearing mourn- 
ing for a whole year. Valerius returned to the city and was 
the first Roman who enjoyed the honor of a triumph. 

4. In the meantime, Tarquin, undaunted by his misfor- 
tunes, prevailed upon Porsenna, one of the kings of Etru- 
ria, to espouse his cause, and in conjunction with him, 
marched directly to Rome and laid siege to the city. This 
war is signalized by the daring intrepidity of Horatius 
Codes, who alone, resisted the whole force of the enemy 
at the head of a bridge, which led across the Tyber, and 
also by that of Mutius Scasvola, who entered the enemy's 
camp with a design to assassinate Porsenna, but, mistaking 
the monarch, killed the secretary, who sat by his side. On 
Porsenna's demanding who he was, Mutius, without re- 
serve, informed him of his country and his design, and by 
way of punishment of the hand which had missed its aim, 
he thrusted it into the fire which was burning upon the al- 
tar before him. Porsenna, admiring this noble intrepidity, 
offered conditions of his peace to the Romans on honora- 
ble terms. 

5. Tarquin having induced the Latins to enlist in his 
cause, for a third time, approached the city with his army. 
But while a public enemy threatened them from without, 
domestic disorders prevailed within the walls of the city. 
The plebeians, who were poor and oppressed with debt, re- 
fused to aid in repelling the enemy unless their debts were 
remitted on their return, and as the Valerian law gave to 
any condemned citizen, the right of appealing to the peo- 
ple, the consuls found their authority of no avail. 

6. In this state of things, an extraordinary measure was 
necessary. A new magistrate was created, styled dictator, 
who should continue in office only as long as the danger of 
the state required, and whose power was absolute, not only 



ROME. 67 

over all ranks of the state, but even over the very laws, 
with which he could dispense in cases of public exigency, 
without consulting the senate or the people. Titus Largius, 
one of the consuls, being elevated to the office of dictator, 
collected an army, and having restored tranquility to the 
state, resigned the dictatorship before the expiration of six 
months, with the reputation of having exercised it with 
justice and moderation. 

Shortly after this event, war again was excited by the 
Tarquins ; in this emergency, Posthumius was appointed 
dictator; the Romans were completely victorious, and the 
sons of Tarquin were slain. 

7. On the return of peace, Rome was again disturbed by 
domestic dissensions ; the dispute between the creditors and 
debtors was again renewed. The plebeians despairing of 
being able to effect a redress of their grievances in Rome, 
resolved to move and form a new establishment without its 
limits. Accordingly, under the conduct of a plebeian, called 
Sicinius Bellutus, they retired to a mountain, called Mons 
Sacer, on the banks of the river Anio, about three miles 
from Rome. 

8. At the news of this defection, the senate grew alarm- 
ed, and immediately deputed ten of the most respectable of 
their body, with authority to grant a redress. Menenius 
Agrippa, one of the ten commissioners, eminent for his 
virtue and wisdom, is said to have effected a reconciliation 
by relating the celebrated fable of the disagreement between 
the stomach and the other members of the human body. 
The application of the fable was so obvious, that the peo- 
ple unanimously cried out, that Agrippa should lead them 
back to Rome. Before their departure, however, it was 
proposed by Lucius Junius, that for their future security, a 
new order of magistrates should be created, who should 
have the power of annulling, by a single vote, any measure 
which they should deem prejudicial to the interests of the 
people. Those magistrates, called tribunes, were annually 
elected; their number, which at first was five, afterwards 
increased to ten. By this measure, the aristocracy was re- 
strained, and the fury of the populace checked. At the 
same time two magistrates, styled aediles, were appointed, 
whose duty it was, to assist the tribunes, and take charge 
of the public buildings. 

9. During the late separation, agriculture having been 
neglected, a famine was the consequence the following sea- 
son ; but the timely arrival of a large quantity of corn from 



68 ROME. 

Sicily, prevented the evil consequences, that were likely to 
ensue. At this, time the resentment of the people was 
strongly excited against Coriolanus, who insisted that the 
corn should not be distributed until the grievances of the 
senate were removed; for which proposition, he was sum- 
moned by the tribunes, to a trial before the people, and was 
condemned to perpetual banishment. He retired to the 
Volsci, and being appointed to the command of their army, 
he invaded the Roman territories, and carried his devasta- 
tions to the very walls of the city ; but he was at length 
prevailed upon, by the earnest entreaties of his mother and 
his wife, to withdraw his army. 

10. The proposal of the Agrarian law, which had for its 
object, the division of the land obtained by conquest, equal- 
ly among the people, proved a source of discord between 
the plebeians and patricians ; while the former repeatedly 
urged the measure, the latter as often strenuously opposed 
the design ; the state, was in consequence, thrown into vio- 
lent dissensions. Through the influence of the tribune, 
Volero, a law was passed, that the election of the tribunes 
should be made in the comitia, or public meetings of the 
people. By this law, the supreme authority was taken from 
the patricians and placed in the hands of the plebeians, and 
the Roman government became a democracy. 

11. During the dissensions which grew out of the pro- 
position for the Agrarian law, Quinctius Cincinnatus, a man 
eminent for his wisdom and virtue, and who had retired 
from public life, was created dictator, but scarcely had he 
restored tranquility to the state and resigned his office, than 
new dangers obliged him a second time to resume it. The 
JEqui, having invaded the territory of the Romans, enclosed 
the army of the consul Minutius, who had been sent to op- 
pose them, in a defile between two mountains, from which 
there was no egress. Cincinnatus, having raised another 
army, placed himself at its head, and having defeated the 
iEqui, and having rescued the army of the consul from 
their perilous situation, returned in triumph to the city, and 
after holding the high office of dictator only for the space 
of fourteen days, he resigned its honors and again retired to 
labor on his farm. 

12. Previous to this period, the Romans had not possessed 
any written body of laws. Under the regal government, 
the monarch administered justice, and the consuls who suc- 
ceeded them, exercised the same authority. But their arbi- 
trary decisions were frequently the subject of complaint, 



ROME. 69 

and all ranks of the citizens became desirous of having a 
fixed code of laws for the security of their rights. Three 
commissioners, were accordingly sent to collect from the 
most civilized states of Greece and Italy, such laws as 
were deemed useful in forming a suitable code. 

13. On the return of the commissioners, ten of the prin- 
cipal senators, called decemvirs, were appointed to digest a 
body of laws, and were invested with absolute power for 
one year. This gave rise to those celebrated statutes, dis- 
tinguished by the name of the Laws of the Twelve Tables, 
which formed the basis of the Roman jurisprudence, and 
continued to be held in the greatest esteem, during the most 
flourishing period of the republic. Those laws manifest 
the stern spirit of the people, and were marked by their 
severity. Nine crimes were punishable with death, one of 
which was parricide, but to the honor of the Romans, it 
might be observed, that this crime was unknown among 
them, for more than five hundred years after the foundation 
of the city. 

14. The decemvirs, during the first year of their power, 
governed with equity and moderation ; each in his turn, 
presided for a day, and exercised the sovereign authority. 
At the expiration of the term for which they were ap- 
pointed, under a pretense that some laws were yet wanting 
to complete the code, they entreated the senate to allow them 
further time, but having experienced the charms of power, 
they were unwilling to retire ; they soon threw off the 
mask of moderation, and regardless of the approbation, 
either of the senate or the people, resolved to continue in 
decemvirate. A conduct so notorious, produced universal 
discontent, and their flagrant abuse of power, brought a 
speedy termination of their office. 

15. While the army was encamped about ten miles from 
Rome, during a war with Sabines and Volsci, Appius, one 
of the leading members of the decemvirate, who remained 
in the city, appointed Sicinius Dentatus, a tribune who, on 
account of his extraordinary valor and exploits, was called 
the Roman Achilles, legate, and put him at the head of the 
supplies which were sent to re-inforce the army in the field. 
On his arrival in the camp, he was appointed at the head 
of a hundred men, to discover a more commodious place for 
encampment, as he had very candidly assured the com- 
manders that their present situation was badly chosen. 
The soldiers, however, who composed his escort, were as- 
sassins, and had engaged to murder him. With this view, 



70 ROME. 

they led him into the hollow of a mountain, where they in- 
tended to put into execution their design. Dentatus, now 
perceived^ when too late, the treachery of the decemvirs, 
but resolving to sell his life as dearly as possible, he -put 
his back against a rock, and defended himself with so much 
bravery, that he killed no less than fifteen, and wounded 
thirty of his assailants before they were able to accomplish 
their design. 

16. Another transaction, equally atrocious, inspired the 
citizens with a resolution to break all measures of obedi- 
ence. While Appius, who remained in the city, was seat- 
ed on his tribunal to dispense justice, he saw a young fe- 
male of exquisite beauty, named Virginia, passing to one 
of the public schools, attended by a matron, her nurse. 
Her charms heigthened by that modest glow which inno- 
cence and virtue lend to nature, inflamed his heart; but be- 
ing himself, unable to gratify his desires, he employed a 
profligate dependent, to claim her as his own, on the pre- 
tense of her being the daughter of one of his female slaves. 
The claim being referred to his tribunal, Appius pronounced 
an infamous sentence, by whicli the innocent victim was 
torn from the embraces of her parents and placed within 
the reach of his own power. 

17. In the meantime, Virginius, her father, done all that 
a parent could to save the liberty and honor of his daugh- 
ter, but finding that all was over, asked permission to take 
his last farewell of one whom he had so long considered as 
his child. With this Appius complied, on condition that 
their endearments should pass in his presence. Virginius, 
with the most poignant anguish, took his almost expiring 
daughter in his arms ; for a while supported her head upon 
his breast, and wiped away the tears that rolled down her 
lovely face, then seizing a knife that lay on one of the 
shambles in the forum, he addressed his daughter, saying, 
" My dearest child — this, this only can preserve your free- 
dom and your honor." Thus saying, he buried the wea- 
pon in her breast, then holding it up, reeking from her 
wound, he exclaimed, " By this blood, Appius, I devote 
thy head to the infernal gods." He then ran through the 
city wildly calling on the people to strike for their free- 
dom, and thence to the camp to spread the flame of liberty 
throughout the army. Appius and Oppius died by their 
own hands in prison ; their colleagues were driven into ex- 
ile, and the decemvirate was abolished, after it had contin- 
ued for three years, and the consuls were again restored. 



ROME. 7i 

18. Unfortunately for Rome, there always appeared some 
cause left for internal dissensions. By an early law of the 
state, plebeians were prohibited to intermarry with the pa- 
tricians, and the office of consul was limited to the latter. 
After a long contest, the law prohibiting intermarriage was 
repealed. This concession it was hoped, would satisfy the 
people, but it only stimulated them to urge their claim to 
be admitted to have a share in the consulship ; and on the 
occurrence of war, refused to enlist their names unless 
their demand was granted. At length it was agreed on 
both sides, that instead of the consuls, six military tribunes 
should be chosen, three from the patricians, and three from 
the plebeians. This institution was soon discontinued, and 
the consuls were again restored. 

19. The consuls being thus restored, in order to lighten 
the weight of their duties, two new magistrates were crea- 
ted, styled censors, to be chosen every fifth year. Their 
duty was, to estimate the number and the estates of the 
people, to distribute them into their proper classes, to in- 
spect the morals and manners of their fellow citizens. The 
office Was one of great dignity and importance, and was 
exercised for nearly one hundred years by the patricians ; 
afterwards, by men of consular dignity, and finally, by the 
emperors. 

20. The senate, in order to avoid the evils which fre- 
quently arose from the people's refusing- to inlist in the 
army, adopted the wise expedient of giving a regular pay 
to the troops. From this period, the Roman system of war 
assumed a new aspect. The senate had the army under its 
immediate control; the enterprises of the republic were 
more extensive and its success more signal and important. 
As the art of war now become a profession, instead of an 
occasional employment, it was in consequence greatly im- 
proved ; and from this period the Roman territory began 
rapidly to extend. 

21. The inhabitants of the city of Veil, had repeatedly 
committed depredations on the Roman territories ; it was at 
length decreed by the Roman senate, that Veii should be, 
destroyed whatever it might cost. Accordingly a siege was 
commenced, which continued with various success for ten 
years. At length in order to give greater vigor to the op- 
perations, Camillus was created dictator, and to him was 
intrusted the sole management of the long protracted war. 
He caused a passage to be opened under ground, which led 
into the very citadel, and giving his men directions how to 



72 ROME. 

enter the breach, the city was taken and destroyed. Ca« 
millus was honored with a splendid triumph, in which his 
chariot was drawn by four white horses ; but being after- 
wards accused of having appropriated a part of the plunder 
of Veii to his own use, indignant at the ingratitude of his 
countrymen, he went into voluntary banishment. 

22. It was not long before the Romans had cause to re- 
pent of their injustice towards the only man, who was able 
to save their country from ruin. 

The Gauls, a barbarous and warlike people, having 
crossed the Alps into the northern part of Italy, under Bren- 
nus, their king, laid siege to Clusium, a city of Etruria. 
The inhabitants of Clusium having applied for assistance 
to the Romans, the senate sent three patricians of the Fa- 
bian family on an embassy to Brennus, to inquire into the 
cause of offense given by the citizens of Clusium. To this 
he sternly replied that, " the right of valiant men lay in 
their swords : that the Romans themselves had no other 
right to the cities they had conquered." The ambassadors, 
on entering the city, assisted the inhabitants against the as- 
sailants. This conduct so incensed Brennus, that he im- 
mediately raised the siege of Clusium and marched directly 
for Rome, and in a great battle on the banks of the Allia, 
he defeated the Roman army with great slaughter. 

23. After this, victory, the Gauls entered Rome, put to 
the sword all the inhabitants that fell in their way, pillaged 
the city and then burnt it to ashes. They next laid siege 
to the capitol, which the Romans defended with the utmost 
bravery. At length, having discovered a way which led to 
the top of the Tarpeian rock, a body of Gauls undertook 
the difficult task of gaining the summit under the cover of 
the night, and even succeeded in accomplishing their design, 
while the Roman sentinel was asleep. At this moment, the 
gabling of some sacred geese, in the temple of Juno, roused 
the garrison ; and through the exertions of Marius Manlius, 
the Gauls were instantly thrown headlong down the preci- 
pice. 

24. As the Gauls now gave up all hope of being able to 
reduce the capitol, they agreed to quit the city, on condition 
that the Romans would pay them 1,000 pounds weight of 
gold ; but after the gold was brought forth, the Gaul's en- 
deavored by fraudulent weights, to impose upon the Romansj 
and when the latter offered to complain, Brennus casting 
his sword and belt into the scale, replied, that it was the 
only portion of the vanquished to suffer. At this moment, 



ROME. 73 

Camillus, who in the mean time had been restored to favor 
and again appointed dictator, entered the gates of the city 
at the head of a large army. Having been informed of the 
insolence of the enemy, he ordered the gold to be carried 
back to the capitol, saying, that it had been the manner of 
the Romans to ransom their country by steel, and not by 
gold. Upon this a battle ensued, in which the Gauls were 
entirely routed, and the Roman territories delivered from 
those formidable invaders. 

25. After the defeat of the Gauls, through the exertions 
of Camillus, who was honored as the father of his country, 
and the second founder of Rome, the city soon began again 
to rise from its ashes. Shortly after this, Manlius, whose 
patriotism and valor had shown so conspicuous in defending 
the capitol, and saving the last remains of Rome, abandoned 
himself to ambitious views ; and being accused of aspiring 
to the sovereign power, he was sentenced to be thrown 
headlong from the Tarpeian rock. Thus the place which 
had been the theatre of his glory, became that of his pun- 
ishment and infamy. 

26. The Romans next turned their arms against the Sam- 
nites, who inhabited an extensive tract of country in the 
south of Italy. During this contest, which lasted for about 
fifty years, the Romans were generally successful, with the 
exception of a defeat sustained near Caudium, when their 
whole army was compelled to pass under the yoke, formed 
by two spears placed upright and a third placed across them. 
But roused by this defeat rather than discouraged, the Ro- 
mans, the following year, having created Papirius Cursor, 
dictator, gained a signal victory over the Samnites, and com- 
pelled them in turn to undergo the same disgrace : and pur- 
suing their good fortune under Fabius Maximus and Decius, 
they finally brought them under subjection. 

27. A war shortly afterwards followed between the Ro- 
mans and Latins ; but as their clothing, arms and language 
were similar, the most exact discipline was necessary in 
order to prevent confusion in the engagement. Orders were 
therefore issued by Manlius, the consul, that no soldier 
should leave his ranks under the penalty of death. When 
the armies were drawn out in order of battle, Metius, a 
Latin, challenged to single combat any one of the Roman 
knights. Upon this, Titus Manlius, the son of the consul, 
forgetful of the orders of his father, accepted the challenge, 
and slew his adversary. Then taking the spoils of the 
enemy, he hastened to lay them at the feet of the consul, 



74 ROME. 

who, with tears in his eyes, told him that as he had violated 
military discipline, he had reduced him to the deplorable 
extremity of scrificing his son or his country, but added, 
that a thousand lives would be well lost in such a cause ; 
and accordingly ordered him to be beheaded. In the mean 
time, the battle ensued, in which the Latins were vanquished, 
and submitted to the Romans. 

28. The Tarentines, who were the allies of the Sam- 
nites, being unable to defend themselves, applied for aid to 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, the most celebrated general of his 
age. 

Having accepted the invitation, Pyrrhus immediately 
sailed for Tarentum with an army of 30,000 men, and 20 
elephants. The consul, Lavinus, hastened to oppose him ; 
but the Romans unaccustomed to the mode of fighting with 
elephants, were defeated with the loss of 15,000 men; but 
the loss on the side of the Grecian monarch was nearly the 
same, and he was heard to say, that another such victory 
would compell him to abandon his enterprise. Struck with 
admiration at the heroism of the enemy, he exclaimed ; 
*' O with what ease could I conquer the world, had I the 
Romans for soldiers, or had they me for their king." 

29. The conduct of Fabricius, the Roman general, during 
this war, claims universal admiration. On one occasion, 
having received a letter from the physician of Pyrrhus, im- 
porting that for a proper reward he would poison the king, 
the noble Roman indignant at so base a proposal, gave im- 
mediate information of it to Pyrrhus, who, admiring the 
generosity of his enemy, exclaimed : " It is easier to turn 
the sun from its course than Fabricius from the path of 
honor." Pyrrhus, after suffering a total defeat near Bene- 
ventum, withdrew to his own dominions, and the Romans 
shortly after his departure, became masters of all the south- 
ern part of Italy. 



SECTION III. 



From the first Punic War to the conquest of Greece. 
A. C. 264, to 133. 

1. As the history of Rome now becomes connected with 
that of Carthage and Sicily, it may not be improper to in- 



ROME. 75 

troduce here a short account of those states. Carthage is 
said to have been founded by Dido, with a colony of Tyri- 
ans, about 900 years before the Christian era. The gov- 
ernment was at first monarchical, but afterwards became re- 
publican ; it is highly commended by Aristotle, as one of 
the most perfect of antiquity ; but according to the same 
author, it had two great defects ; the first, was the investing 
the same person with different public employments ; and 
the second, was that a certain income was required before 
a man could attain to any important office ; by which means 
poverty might exclude a person of the most exalted merit 
from holding a civil employment. 

2. The supreme power was placed in the senate ; there 
were two magistrates annually elected, called Seffetes, 
whose authority in Carthage, answered to that of the con- 
suls at Rome. Commerce was the chief occupation of the 
Carthaginians, to which they were indebted for their wealth 
and power. Their religion was a degrading superstition, 
the cruel practice of offering human victims was exercised 
among them. At the time of the Punic wars, the city of 
Carthage had risen in wealth and commercial importance 
surpassing any other city in the world. It had under its 
dominion, a number of towns in Africa, bordering on the 
Mediterranean, besides a great part of Spain, Sicily and 
other islands. 

3. From Egypt, the Carthaginians brought flax, paper, 
corn, &c; from the coast of the Red Sea, spices, perfumes, 
gold, pearls, and precious stones ; from Tyre and Phoeni- 
cia, purple, scarlet and the like : in a word, they brought 
from various countries, all things that contribute not only to 
the convenience, but even to the luxury and pleasures of 
life. They are represented as being greatly wanting in 
honor and integrity : cunning, duplicity, and breach of faith, 
seems to have been a distinguishing feature in their charac- 
ter; hence the phrase, Punica Fides — Punic Faith — was 
used to denote treachery. 

4. The Carthaginians seem never to have excelled as a 
literary people ; there were, however, among them several 
distinguished scholars. The great Hannibal, who in all 
respects was the ornament of the city, was not unacquaint- 
ed with polite literature. Mago, another celebrated general, 
wrote twenty-eight volumes upon husbandry, which were 
afterwards much esteemed by the Romans. There is still 
extant, a Greek version of an account written by Hanno, re- 
lating to a voyage made by him with a considerable fleet 



76 ROME. 

round Africa, for the settling of different colonies. Clito* 
machus, called in the Punic tongue Asdrubal, was a great 
philosopher. Carthage produced several eminent generals,, 
among whom Hamilcar, Asdrubal, and Hannibal, were the 
most distinguished. 

5. Sicily is said to have been settled by a colony of 
Phoenicians, previous to the Trojan war; but the Greeks at 
a later period made settlements on the island. It contained 
many large and populous cities ; of these Syracuse was the 
most populous and commercial. This city, at an early 
period, was under a democraticalform of government, which 
in the course of time, was overthrown, and a monarchy es- 
tablished in its stead. Gelon, one of its sovereigns, is rep- 
resented as possessed of every virtue ; but the tyranny 
and cruelty of his successors caused a revolution in the 
state, and the regal government was abolished. After a 
period of sixty years, it was again restored by Dionysius, 
a man of great abilities ; but his son Dionysius, the younger, 
a weak and capricious tyrant, was dethroned by the aid of 
Timoteon, an illustrious Corinthian, and banished to Co- 
rinth, where he ended his life in poverty. 

6. The Romans, being anxious to extend their conquests, 
soon found an opportunity of indulging in their design. 
The Mamertines, a people of Campania, obtained assistance 
of the Romans in a war with Hiero, king of Syracuse ; the 
Syracusans in their turn, assisted the Cartheginians ; a war 
was thus brought on between the latter and the Romans, 
called the first Punic War. The first object of both powers 
was to obtain possession of Messina, a city which com- 
manded the passage of the straits, but it finally became a 
contest for the dominion of the whole island. 

7. But there seemed an insurmountable obstacle to the 
ambition of Rome; she had no fleet; while Carthage was 
sovereign of the sea. The Romans, however, resolved to 
overcome every obstacle that lay in their way to conquest. 
A Carthaginian vessel which happened in a storm to be 
driven on the coast, served as a model ; and in the short 
space of two months, a fleet consisting of one hundred ves- 
sels was constructed and ready for sea. The consul, Duil- 
lius, was appointed to the command of the armament, and 
though much inferior to the enemy in the management of 
his fleet, yet he gained the first naval victory, defeated the 
Carthaginians and took fifty of their vessels. 

8. At the commencement of the war, the Syracusans, 
who had confederated with the Carthaginians, changed their 



ROME. 77 

course and joined the Romans. The Carthaginians, how- 
ever, after a long siege, took the city of Aiigintum. A 
second naval engagement soon afterwards took place, in 
which the Romans were again victorious ; the Carthagin- 
ians, under Hanno and Hamilcar, lost sixty of their ves- 
sels. The consul, Regulus, in the mean time was sent by 
the senate to carry the war into Africa ; and having landed 
on the coast, defeated the Carthaginians, and carried his vic- 
torious arms to the very walls of their capital. But here 
his good fortune seemed to forsake him ; he was signally 
defeated by the Carthaginians under the command of Xan- 
thippus, a Spartan general, and fell into the hands of the 
enemy. 

9. The Carthaginians, weary of continuing the war, be- 
came desirous of treating for peace, and with this view, they 
sent ambassadors to Rome, and among their number was Reg- 
ulus, who had now been detained for four years a prisoner, 
having previously exacted a promise on oath, that he would 
return to Carthage if the negotiation should fail. But Reg- 
ulus not deeming the terms of peace sufficiently advanta- 
geous to his country, strenuously opposed their being accept- 
ed, and returned to Carthage, where, after the most cruel 
tortures, he was finally put to death, by being placed in a 
barrel driven full of nails, pointing inwards, and in this 
painful situation he continued until he died. 

10. The war was now renewed on both sides with more 
than former animosity ; at length the perseverance of the 
Romans was crowned with success. Peace was granted to 
the Carthaginians on the most humiliating conditions ; it 
was agreed that they should abandon Sicily, pay the Ro- 
mans three thousand two hundred talents, and release their 
captives. Thus terminated the first Punic War, after it had 
continued twenty-four years. Sicily was now declared a 
Roman province, but Syracuse still maintained its indepen- 
dent government. After this war, the Romans completed the 
conquest of Cisalpine Gaul ; and now, being at peace with 
all mankind, they closed the temple of Janus, for the first 
time since the reign of Numa. 

11. The Carthaginians had made peace only, because 
they were no longer able to continue the war ; they there- 
fore took the earliest opportunity of breaking the treaty. 
They besieged Saguntum, a city in Spain, then in alliance 
with Rome; and, although requested to desist, they refused 
to comply: this refusal led to a second Punic War. To 
Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar, the Carthaginians entrusted 



78 HOME. 

the command of their army. This extraordinary man, whilst 
very young was brought before the altar and made to take 
an oath that he never would be in friendship with the Ro* 
mans, nor desist from opposing their power until he or they 
should be no more. Being now raised to the chief com- 
mand of the forces of his country, though only in the 
twenty-sixth year of his age, he formed the bold design of 
carrying the war into Italy, as the Romans had before car- 
ried it into the dominions of Carthage. 

12. For this purpose, leaving Hanno to guard his con- 
quest in Spain, he crossed the Pyrenean mountain, entered 
Gaul, and with an army of fifty thousand foot and nine 
thousand horse, in a short time appeared at the foot of the 
Alps. It was now in the midst of winter ; the prodigious 
height of the mountains, their steepness, and summits 
covered with snow, presented a picture that might have dis- 
couraged an ordinary individual. But nothing could sub- 
due the resolution of the Carthaginian general : at the end 
of fifteen days, he effected the passage of the Alps and 
found himself on the plains of Italy ; but with only a half 
of his numerous army. 

13. Scarcely had he arrived in Italy, when the Romans 
hastened to oppose his progress, over whom he gained four 
memorable victories,— the first, over Scipio near Ticinus ; 
the second, over Sempronius, the consul, in which twenty- 
six thousand Romans were destroyed ; the third, near lake 
Thrasimenus over Flaminius ; and the fourth at Cannae, 
over iEmilius and Varro. The last was the most memor- 
able defeat the Romans ever sustained. More than forty- 
thousand of their troops were left dead upon the field, to- 
gether with the consul iEmilius. Among the slain were so 
many Roman knights, that Hannibal is said to have sent to 
Carthage three bushels of gold rings, which they wore on 
their fingers. In the mean time, Hannibal either finding it 
impracticable to march directly to Rome, or wishing to give 
his forces rest after so signal a victory, led them to Capua, 
where he resolved to spend the winter. 

14. The chief command of the Roman forces was now 
given to Fabius Maximus, styled the Shield, and to Marcel- 
lus, the Sword, of Rome. After the battle of Cannae, the good 
fortune of the Carthaginian general seemed to forsake him. 
At the siege of Nola he was repulsed with considerable 
loss, by Marcellus, and his army was harrassed and weak- 
ened by Fabius. Marcellus took the city of Syracuse after 
a siege of three years, during which time it was chiefly de- 



ROME. 79 

fended by the genius of the celebrated Archimedes. The in- 
habitants were put, to the sword, and among them Archime- 
des, himself, who was found by a Roman soldier engaged in 
his study. 

15. A large army of Carthaginians, sent from Spain into 
Italy under the command of Asdrubal, the brother of Han- 
nibal, was defeated and their general slain by the Romans 
under the command of the consuls, Livy and Nero. The 
very night on which Hannibal was assured of the arrival 
of his brother, Asdrubals head was cut off and thrown into 
his camp. Scipio the younger, surnamed Africanus, after 
his return from the conquest of Spain, was made consul at 
the early age of twenty-nine ; but instead of opposing Han- 
nibal in Italy, formed a wiser plan which was to carry the 
war into Africa. On his arrival at the very walls of their 
capital, the Carthaginians, alarmed for the fate of their em- 
pire, immediately recalled Hannibal from Italy. On re- 
ceiving this order, he hastened to return to his native coun- 
try, after having kept possession of the most beautiful parts 
of Italy for about fifteen years. 

16. Having arrived in Africa, he marched to Adrumetum, 
and finally upon the plains of Zama he was met by Scipio 
at the head of the Roman army, and after a fruitless attempt to 
negotiate a peace, a tremendous battle ensued, in which the 
Carthaginians were totally defeated, with the loss of twenty 
thousand of their troops which were left dead upon the plain, 
and as many more taken prisoners. This victory was fol- 
lowed by a peace, on conditions that Carthage should 
abandon Spain, Sicily and all the islands in the Mediterra- 
nean, surrender all their prisoners, give up their whole fleet 
except ten galleys, and in future undertake no war without 
the consent of the Romans. To these hard conditions, the 
Carthaginians were compelled to subscribe. Thus termin- 
ated the Second Punic war, after having continued for seven- 
teen years. 

17. Hannibal, after this event, passed the last thirteen 
years of his life in exile from his native country, and finally 
took refuge in the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia. The 
Romans, who were bent on his destruction, sent iEmilius 
one of their most celebrated generals to demand him from 
this king, who, fearingthe resentment of Rome, determined 
to deliver up his guest. The unfortnnate general, in order 
to avoid falling into the hands of his enemies, destroyed 
himself by poison. 

18. While the Romans were engaged in hostilities with 



80 ROME. 

the Carthaginians, they also carried on a vigorous war against 
Philip, king of Macedonia, which finally terminated in favor 
of Rome. After this, the Romans turned their arms against 
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, who was defeated by 
Scipio surnamed Asiaticus, in the great battle of Magnesia. 
A second war followed with Macedonia, which terminated 
in the defeat of Perseus, the last king of that country, at 
the battle of Pydna ; after which Macedonia was reduced 
to a Roman province. 

19. About this time Massinissa, the Numidian, made in- 
cursions into a territory claimed by the Carthaginians, who 
attempted to repell the invasion. The Romans pretending 
this as a violation of their treaty, laid hold of it as a pre- 
text for commencing the third Punic War, with a determ- 
ination not to desist until the city of Carthage should be 
destroyed. Porcius Cato, one of the most prominent mem- 
bers of the senate, strongly insisted on this measure, and 
usually concluded his speeches in these words : Delenda 
est Carthago, Carthage must be destroyed. 

The Carthaginians, conscious of the superiority of the 
Romans, endeavored by every species of submission, to 
evert the impending ruin of their country. They yielded 
to the Romans their ships, their arms and munitions of war ; 
but they were still required to abandon their capital that it 
might leveled to the ground. 

20. This demand was received with mingled feelings of 
sorrow and despair ; but finding no alternative, the wretched 
Carthaginians began to prepare to suffer the utmost ex- 
tremities, in order to save the seat of their empire. The 
vessels of gold and silver which adorned their luxurious 
banquets, were now converted into arms ; even the women 
parted with their ornaments, and cut off their hair, to be 
made into bow-strings. After a desperate resistance for 
three years, the city was taken by Scipio, also called Afri- 
canus, and destroyed. Thus was Carthage, one of most 
renowned cities of antiquity, with its walls and temples, 
razed to its foundation. Such of the inhabitants as refused 
to surrender themselves prisoners of war, either fell by the 
sword or perished in the ruins of their city. The scenes 
of horror presented on the occasion, it is said, even forced 
tears from the eyes of the Roman general. 

21. The destruction of Carthage was succeeded by the 
conquests of several other states. Corinth was taken and 
destroyed by the consul Mummius, and Greece reduced to 
a Roman province. Scipio having laid siege to Numantia, 



ROME. 81 

a city in Spain, the inhabitants to avoid falling into the 
hands of the enemy, set fire to the town, and perished in 
the flames. After this event, Spain fell under the dominion 
of Rome. 



SECTION IV. 



The Sedition of the Gracchi; Civil wars ; Conspiracy 
of Catiline. A. C. 133, to 63. 

1. The Romans, who had been long distinguished for 
temperance and military enterprize, were not as yet a lit- 
erary people; the arts and sciences had been but little cul- 
tivated among them. After the conquest of Greece, a fa- 
vorable change took place ; with the luxury of that nation, 
was introduced at Rome, a taste for literature. But as they 
grew in power, luxury and a corruption of manners began 
to prevail. By the destruction of Carthage, Rome was 
left without a rival ; her arms were everywhere successful. 

2. But when she had triumphed over all her enemies 
abroad, domestic dissensions began to prevail at home. 
Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, men of eloquence and in- 
fluence, distinguished themselves by declaiming against 
the corruptions which began to prevail among the great, 
and by asserting the claims of the people. Tiberius, the 
elder of the two brothers, while tribune, with a view of 
checking the power of the patricians, and abridging their 
immense estates, endeavored to revive the Licinian law, 
which ordained that no citizen should possess more than 
500 acres of public land. In consequence of this proposal, 
a tumult followed, in which Tiberius, together with 300 of 
his friends, was slain in the streets of Rome by the parti- 
sans of the senate. 

3. When this tragical event took place, Caius Gracchus, 
in the twenty-first year of his age, was yet in retirement, 
engaged in the quiet pursuit of study. The fatal example 
of his brother did not deter him from following a similar 
career. Having been elected to the tribuneship, he pro- 
cured an edict granting the freedom of the city to the in- 
habitants of Latium; and afterwards to all the people on 
that side of the Alps ; he also procured that the price of 
corn should be fixed at a moderate rate, and a monthly dis- 

4 



S2 ROME. 

tribution of it among the people. He then proceeded to 
an inspection into the late corruptions of the senate, the 
whole body of which being convicted of bribery, extortion, 
and sale of offices. These measures did not fail to enkin- 
dle the resentment of that body ; Gracchus was marked 
out for destruction, and he finally fell a victim to their ven- 
geance with 3,000 of his partisans, who were slaughtered 
in the streets of Rome, by the consul Opimius. (See the 
Gracchi in Biog.) 

4. Jugurtha, the grandson of the famous Masinissa, at- 
tempted to usurp the throne of Numidia, by destroying his 
cousins, Hiempsal and Adherbal, the sons of the late king 
Micipsa. The elder fell a victim to his treachery, but Ad- 
herbal, the younger, having escaped, applied for assistance to 
the senate of Rome, but that body being bribed by Jugurtha, 
divided the kingdom between the two. Jugurtha having 
invaded the territories of Adherbal, defeated and slew him 
in battle, then seized upon his whole kingdom; but by this 
act, he drew upon himself the resentment of Rome. War 
having been declared against him, the command of the 
army was at first confided to Metellus ; but, when on the 
point of gaining a complete triumph over the king of Nu- 
midia, he was supplanted in the command by the intrigues 
of Caius Marius, who had the honor of terminating the 
war. Jugurtha was defeated and taken prisoner, and led 
to Rome in chains, and having adorned the triumph of the 
conqueror, was cast into prison and starved to death. 

5. About this period the Roman republic was again con- 
vulsed by domestic dissensions. The Italian states being 
frustrated in their aims of gaining the freedom of Rome, 
by the intrigues of the senate, resolved to gain by force, 
what they could not obtain as a favor. This gave rise to 
the Social War, which continued to rage for several years, 
and is said to have involved the destruction of 300,000 
men. It was finally terminated by granting the rights of 
citizenship to all who should lay down their arms and re- 
turn to their allegiance. 

6. This destructive war being concluded, the Romans 
next turned their arms against Mithridates, king of Pontus, 
the most powerful monarch of the East, who caused 80,- 
000 Romans, who dwelt in the cities of Asia Minor, to be 
massacred in one day. In this celebrated contest, styled 
the Mithridatic war, the Roman generals, Sylla, Lncullus, 
and Pompey, successively bore a distinguished part. The 
chief command, in the war against Mithridates^ was first 



ROME. 83 

given to Sylla, a man of great talents and an able general ; 
but Marius, who had been distinguished for his warlike 
genius and exploits, for nearly half a century, now in the 
seventieth year of his age, had the address to get the com- 
mand of the army transferred from Sylla to himself. 

7. Sylla, on receiving this intelligence, finding his troops 
devoted to his interest, marched directly to Rome, which 
he entered as a place taken by storm, and proceeding to the 
senate, compelled that body to issue a decree, declaring 
Marius to be a public enemy. Marius, in the meantime, 
fled to Africa, and Sylla, alter some delay, entered upon 
the Mithridatic war. Cinna, a partisan of Marius, having 
collected an army in his favor, recalled the veteran warrior, 
and they soon presented themselves at the gates of Rome. 
Marius refused to enter the city, alledging that having been 
banished by a public decree, it was necessary that another 
should authorize his return. But before the form of an- 
nulling the sentence of his banishment was concluded, he 
entered the city at the head of his guards, and ordered a 
general massacre of all who had ever been obnoxious to 
him. Many of those who had never offended him, were 
put to death ; and at last, even his own officers could not 
approach him without terror. He next proceeded to abro- 
gate all laws made by his rival ; and associated himself in 
the consulship with Cinna. Thus having gratified his two 
favorite passions, vengeance and ambition, his bloody ca- 
reer was shortened by death, and shortly afterwards, Cinna 
was cut off by assassination. 

8. In the meantime, these accounts were brought to Syl- 
la, who was pursuing a victorious campaign against Mith- 
ridates ; but having concluded a peace with that monarch, 
he hastened to Rome to take vengeance on his enemies. 
Having entered the city, he caused a more horrible massa- 
cre than that which took place under Marius. He ordered 
eight thousand men, who surrendered themselves to him, 
to be put to death ; while he, without being the least dis- 
composed, harangued the senate. The day following, he 
proscribed forty senators and sixteen hundred knights ; and 
after a short interval, forty senators more, with a much 
greater number of the most distinguished citizens of Rome. 
He then caused himself to be proclaimed perpetual dicta- 
tor, but after having held it for nearly three years, to the 
astonishment of all mankind, he resigned the dictatorship, 
and retired to the country, where he passed the remainder 
of his days in the society of licentious persons, and the 



84 ROME. 

occasional pursuit of literature. A.fter his death, a magnifi- 
cent monument was erected to him, with the following epi- 
taph written by himself: — " I am Sylla the Fortunate, who, 
in the course of my life, have surpassed both friends and 
enemies ; the former in the good, and the latter in the evil, 
1 have done them." In the civil war between Marius and 
Sylla, 160,000 Roman citizens are said to have been sacri- 
ficed, including among them, more than two hundred sena- 
tors and persons of distinguished rank. 

9. While the commonwealth was yet distracted by the 
old dissensions, new calamities were added. Sparticus, a 
Thracian, who had been kept at Capua as a gladiator, 
placing himself at the head of an army of slaves, laid waste 
the country, but was at length totally defeated by Crassus, 
with the loss of 40,000 men. A few years after this event, 
a conspiracy, which threatened the destruction of Rome, 
was headed by Catiline, a man of courage and talents, but 
of ruined fortune and of the most profligate character. A 
plan was concerted for a simultaneous insurrection through- 
out Italy ; that Rome should be fired in different places, at 
once; and that in the general confusion, Catiline, at the 
head of an army, should enter the city and massacre all the 
senators. The plot was fortunately detected and suppress- 
ed by the vigilance and energy of Cicero, the great Roman 
orator, who was consul at that time. Catiline, at the head 
of an army of 12,000 men, was defeated and slain in the 
battle. 



SECTION V. 

From the first Triumvirate, to the Dissolution of the 
Commonwealth. $.. C. 60, to 31. 

1. Pompey, who, on account of his military exploits, 
was surnamed the Great, having been appointed to conduct 
the Mithridatic war, brought it to a successful termination. 
He defeated Mithridates and Tigranes, king of Armenia, 
reduced Syria, together with Judea, to a Roman province. 
On his return to Rome, he was honored with a splendid 
triumph, which continued three days, during which, the 
citizens gazed with astonishment on the spoils of eastern 
grandeur, which preceded his chariot. 



ROME. 85 

2. Pompey, however, found a great rival in Crassus, 
who was the richest man in Rome, and courted popularity 
by his extensive patronage and great liberality. As they 
both aspired to the first place in the republic, a mutual 
jealousy existed between them. Such was the state of 
things, when Julius Caesar, a young man, who had already 
distinguished himself by his military achievements, had 
the address to effect a reconciliation between them, and to 
ingratiate himself into the favor of each. They agreed to 
appropriate to themselves, the whole power of the state, 
and entered into that famous league, styled the First Tri- 
umvirate. 

3. They immediately proceeded to divide the Roman 
provinces among themselves. Pompey, who remained at 
Rome, received Spain and Africa; Syria fell to the lot of 
Crassus, and Caesar chose Gaul for his portion, and as soon 
as time permitted, proceeded to take possession of his 
province. Crassus, in a war with the Parthians, was de- 
feated and slain, leaving the empire to his two colleagues. 
The brilliant career of victory, which attended the arms of 
Caesar, in Gaul, his high military reputation and increasing 
popularity, did not fail to awaken a spirit of jealousy in the 
breast of Pompey. Caesar, desirous of trying whether his 
rival would promote or oppose his pretensions, applied to 
the senate for a continuation of his authority, which was 
about to expire. That body, being devoted to the interests 
of Pompey, denied his request, and finally, ordered him 
to lay down his government, and disband his forces, with- 
in a limited time, under the penalty of being considered an 
enemy to the commonwealth. 

4. This hasty measure, determined the course of Caesar. 
He now resolved, to support his claim by force of arms, 
and finding his troops devoted to his interest, he immedi- 
ately commenced his march towards Italy. Having crossed 
the Alps, he halted at Ravenna, and wrote again to the sen- 
ate, offering to resign all command, if Pompey would fol- 
low his example ; but that body refused to listen to his de- 
mand. Proceeding on his march, he soon arrived on the 
banks of the Rubicon, a small river separating Italy from 
Cisalpine Gaul, and forming the limits of his command. 
The Romans had always been taught to consider this river 
as the sacred boundary of their domestic empire ; Caesar, 
therefore, when arrived on the banks of this famous stream, 
stopped short, as if impressed with the greatness of his 
enterprise, and its fearful consequences; he pondered for 



86 ROME. 

some time in fixed melancholy, looking upon the river, and 
then observed to Pollio, one of his generals, "If I pass 
this river, what miseries shall I bring upon my country ; 
and if I now stop short, I am undone." Thus saying, he 
exclaimed, "The die is cast;" and putting spurs to his 
horse, he plunged into the stream, followed by his troops. 

5. The news of Caesar's movement, excited the utmost 
consternation at Rome. Pompey, who had boasted that 
he could raise an army by stamping his foot upon the 
ground, finding himself unable to resist Caesar in Rome, 
where he had many partisans, led his forces to Capua, 
where he had a few legions; thence he proceeded to Brun- 
dusium, and finally passed over to Dyrrachium, in Mace- 
donia. In his retreat, he was followed by the consuls and 
the greater part of the senators, among them, were the fa- 
mous Cato and Cicero, the orator. 

6. Caesar, in the meantime, having made himself master 
of all Italy in the space of sixty days, marched to Rome, 
entered the city in triumph, amidst the acclamations of the 
citizens, seized the public treasury, and possessed himself 
of the supreme authority. On every occasion, he manifest- 
ed the greatest liberality and clemency ; he said that he 
had entered Italy, not to injure, but to restore the liberties 
of Rome. After a stay only of a few days, he proceeded 
to Spain, where he defeated Pompey's lieutenant, made 
himself master of the whole country, and again returned 
victorious to Rome. The citizens received him with fresh 
demonstrations of joy, and created him consul and dictator, 
but the latter office he resigned, after he had held it eleven 
days. 

7. While Caesar was thus employed, Pompey was equal- 
ly assiduous in making preparation to oppose him. All 
the monarehs of the East had declared in his favor, and 
sent him large supplies ; his army was numerous, and his 
fleet consisted of five hundred vessels. Caesar, remaining 
only eleven days in Rome, led his forces in pursuit of 
Pompey. But before coming to any general engagement, 
he once more made an effort to bring his rival to an accom- 
modation, offering to refer all to the senate and people of 
Rome; this overture was rejected on the ground that the 
people of Rome were too much in Caesar's interest. 

8. The two armies came in sight of each other near 
Dyrrachium, where an engagement took place, which ter- 
minated in favor of Pompey, who afterwards led his forces 
to the plains of Pharsalia, where he determined to await 



ROME. 87 

the arrival of Caesar, and decide the fate of the empire by 
a single battle. This was what Caesar had long and ar- 
dently desired ; and now, learning the resolution of Pom- 
pey, hastened to meet him. Every thing connected with 
the contest about to follow, was calculated to excite the 
deepest interest; the armies were composed of the bravest 
soldiers in the world, commanded by the two greatest gen- 
erals of the age, and the prize contended for, was nothing less 
than the Roman empire. Pompey's army consisted of up- 
wards of 50,000 men, while the forces of Caesar, were 
less than half that number, yet under much better discip- 
line. 

9. As the armies approached, the two generals went from 
rank to rank, encouraging their men, animating their hopes 
or lessening their apprehensions. Pompey urged the jus- 
tice of his cause, declaring that he was about to engage in 
the defense of liberty and his country. Caesar, on the other 
hand, insisted on nothing so strongly to his soldiers as his 
frequent and unsuccessful endeavors for peace, he spoke of 
the blood he was about to shed, with the deepest regret, 
and only pled the necessity which urged him to it. There 
was only so much space between the two armies as to give 
room for fighting. The signal for the battle was given: 
Caesar's men rushed to the combat with their usual impetu- 
osity ; the dreadful conflict had now raged with unabating 
fury from early in the morning till noon, when the scale of 
victory turned in favor of Caesar, whose loss only amount- 
ed to 200 men, while 15,000 of Pompey's troops were left 
dead upon the plain, and 24,000 surrendered themselves 
prisoners of war. 

10. Caesar on this occasion, manifested his usual charac- 
teristic disposition of clemency and humanity. He set at 
liberty the senators and Roman knights, and incorporated 
with his own army, the greater number of the prisoners ; 
and committed to the flames all Pompey's letters without 
reading them. When viewing the field strewed with his 
fallen countrymen, he seemed deeply affected at the melan- 
choly spectacle, and was heard to say: " They would have 
it so." 

11. The situation of Pompey was deplorable in the ex- 
treme. For thirty years he had been accustomed to victory 
and ruled the councils of the commonwealth, a single day 
beheld him precipitated from the summit of power, a miser- 
able fugitive. Escaping from the field of battle, and wan- 
dering along the beautiful vale of Tempe, he finally found 



88 ROME. 

means of sailing to Lesbos, where he met his wife Corne- 
lia. Their meeting was deeply affecting; at the news of 
his reverse of fortune, she fainted ; at length recovering, she 
ran through the city to the seaside. Pompey received her 
without speaking a word, and for some time supported her 
in his arms in silent anguish. But time would not permit 
him long to indulge in grief. Accompanied by Cornelia, 
he sailed for Egypt with a few friends to seek protection of 
Ptolemy, whose father he had befriended. But as he ap- 
proached the shore, he was basely murdered while yet with- 
in sight of his wife, and his body thrown upon the sand. 
His freed man burnt the corpse and buried the ashes, over 
which was placed the following inscription : " He whose 
merits deserve a temple, can now scarcely find a tomb." 

12. In the mean time, Caesar lost no time in pursuing 
his rival to Egypt, but on his arrival there, the first news he 
received was, the account of Pompey's unfortunate end ; 
and shortly afterwards he was presented with the head and 
ring of the fallen general, but turning his face from the 
sight, he gave vent to his feelings in a flood of tears ; and 
shortly afterwards ordered a splendid monument to be erect- 
ed to his memory. The throne of Egypt at this time, was 
disputed by Ptolemy and his sister, the celebrated Cleopa- 
tra ; but Caesar, captivated by the charms of the beautiful 
queen, decided the contest in her favor, and at length re- 
duced Egypt to the dominion of Rome. Caesar, after this 
event, abandoned himself to pleasure in the company of 
Cleopatra, but was soon called to suppress the revolt of 
Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, who had seized upon 
Colchis and Armenia. Caesar defeated him in a battle at 
Zela, with so much ease, that in writing to the senate at 
Rome, he expressed the rapidity of his victory and suppres- 
sion of the revolt in these three words: Veni, vidi, vici: 
'* 1 came, I saw, I conquered." 

13. Leaving the scene of conquest in the East, Caesar 
hastened to Rome, where his presence was much required, 
by reason of the disorders occasioned by the bad adminis- 
tration of Antony, who governed the city during his ab- 
sence ; but tranquility was soon restored. Caesar's stay at 
Rome was short, being called into Africa to oppose an army 
raised by the partisans of Pompey, under the command of 
Scipio and Cato, assisted by Juba, king of Mauritania; he 
however defeated their united forces in the battle of Thap- 
sus. Upon this, Cato, who was a rigid stoic and stern re- 
publican, fled to Utica, where he resolved to resist the power 



ROME. 89 

of Caesar, but finding that all was lost, determined not to 
survive the liberty of his country, and therefore killed him- 
self in despair. 

14. At the conclusion of the war in Africa, Caesar re- 
turned to Rome, and celebrated a magnificent triumph, 
which lasted four days ; the first was for Gaul, the second 
for Egypt, the third for his victories in the East, and the 
fourth for his victory over Juba. He distributed liberally, 
rewards to his veteran soldiers and officers ; the citizens 
also shared his bounty ; after distributing a certain quantity 
of corn, oil, and money among them, he entertained them 
at a public feast, at which twenty thousand tables were set, 
and treated them to a combat of gladiators. The senate 
and the people, intoxicated by the allurements of pleasure, 
seemed to vie with each other in their acts of servility and 
adulation towards the man who had deprived them of their 
liberty. He was hailed as the father of his country, creat- 
ed perpetual dictator, received the appellation of emperor, 
and his person was declared sacred. 

15. Having restored order in Rome, he again found him- 
self obliged to go into Spain, when Labienus, and the two 
sons of Pompey, had raised an army against him ; but he 
completely defeated them in an obstinate battle, fought on 
the plains of Munda. Caesar, by this victory, having tri- 
umphed over all his enemies, devoted the remainder of his 
life to the benefit of the commonwealth. As clemency was 
his favorite virtue, he readily pardoned all who had at any 
time bore arms against him ; without any distinction of 
party, he seemed only to consider the happiness and pros- 
perity of the people ; he adorned the city with magnificent 
buildings; rebuilt Carthage and Corinth, sending colonies 
to both these places ; he corrected many abuses in the state, 
reformed the calendar, undertook to drain the Pontire marsh, 
and intended to cut through the Isthmus of Peloponnesus. 

16. But while he thus meditated projects beyond the 
limits of the longest life, a deep conspiracy was formed 
against him, embracing no less than sixty senators, among 
whom were Brutus and Cassius, whose lives had been 
spared by the conqueror after the battle of Pharsalia. It had 
been rumored that a crown would be presented to lam on 
the ides of March, namely the fifteenth of that month: the 
conspirators therefore fixed upon that day for the execution 
of their design. 

Accordingly, as soon as Caesar had taken his seat in the 
senate- house, they assembled around him under the pre- 
4* 



90 ROME. 

tence of soliciting for the pardon of a certain individual 
who had been banished by Caesar's order, and assailed him 
with their daggers. He defended himself for some time 
with great vigor, until seeing Brutus his friend, whom he 
tenderly loved, among the conspirators, he exclaimed, et tu 
Brute, "And you too Brutus;" then resigning himself to 
his fate and covering his face with his robe, he fell, pierced 
with twenty-three wounds, at the base of Pompey's statue. 
Thus perished Julius Ccesar in the 56th year of his age, 
whose ruling passion was ambition, and whose redeeming 
virtue was clemency. [See particulars of his character in 
Biography.] 

17. No sooner was the death of Caesar known, than the 
whole city was thrown into the utmost consternation. His 
bleeding corpse was exposed in the forum ; his friend, Mark 
Antony, pronounced over it a funeral oration, and by his 
eloquent appeals to the sympathy of the people, so inflamed 
their resentment against his murderers, that they were 
obliged to escape from the city. 

Mark Antony, who was a man of great military talents, 
but of a most profligate character; Lepidus, who was pos- 
sessed of immense wealth ; and Octavius Ceesar, afterwards 
surnamed Augustus, who was Caesar's grand nephew and 
adopted heir, formed the design of dividing among them- 
selves the supreme authority, and thus established the se- 
cond Triumvirate, which produced the most dreadful ca- 
lamities in the republic. 

18. They stipulated that all their enemies should be des- 
troyed, each sacrificing his nearest friends to the vengeance 
of his colleagues. Thus Antony, consigned to death his 
uncle Lucius; Lepidus,. his brother Paulus ; and Octavius 
gave up his friend, the celebrated Cicero, to whom he was 
under the most binding obligation, in order to gratify the 
hatred of Antony. The illustrious orator was assassinated 
in the 64th year of his age, by Popillius Lanus, whose life 
he had saved in a capital case. Rome was again deluged 
in the blood of her citizens ; in the horrible proscription 
that followed, 300 senators, with 2,000 knights, besides 
many other persons of distinguished rank, were sacrificed. 

19. In the mean time, Brutus and Cassius having retired 
into Thrace, collected an army of 100.000 men, and made 
the last and expiring effort to restore the commonwealth. 
Antony and Octavius marched against them with an army 
superior in number. The empire of the world again de- 
pended upon the issue of a single battle. The two armies 



ROME. 91 

met on the plains of Philippi, and after a dreadful conflict, 
which lasted for two days, the death-blow was given to Ro- 
man liberty, by the total defeat of the republican army. 
Brutus and Cassius resolving not to survive the liberties of 
their country, avoided the vengeance of their enemies by a 
voluntary death. 

20. The power of the Triumviri being thus established 
upon the ruins of the commonwealth, they began to think 
of enjoying the honors to which they had aspired. Lepi- 
dus was shortly afterwards deposed and banished. Antony 
went into Greece, and having made some stay at Athens, 
he passed into Asia. He proceeded from kingdom to king- 
dom, attended by a crowd of sovereigns, exacting contribu- 
tions and giving away crowns with capricious insolence. 
He summoned Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, to Tarsus, to 
answer to the charge of having aided the conspirators. She 
accordingly came, decked in all the emblems of the queen 
of love ; her galley was covered with gold ; the sails of 
purple floating to the wind ; the oars of silver swept to the 
sound of flutes and cymbals; she reclined upon a couch 
spangled with stars of gold, and such ornaments as the poets 
usually ascribe to Venus. Antony, captivated by her charms, 
forgot to decide upon her cause, and giving up all the pur- 
suits of ambition, abandoned himself to pleasure in the 
company of the Egyptian queen. He lavished on her the 
provinces of the Roman empire; and having on her account 
divorced his wife Octavia, the sister of his colleague, an 
open rupture took place between him and Octavius. 

21. The great battle of Actiurn decided the contest in 
favor of Octavius, who, by this victory, was left sole master 
of the empire. After this defeat, Antony put an end to his 
life by falling on his sword ; and Cleopatra, to avoid being 
led captive to Rome, to grace the triumph of Augustus, 
procured her own death by the poison of an asp. 



92 



SECTION VI. 



Rome under the Emperors. The Csesars : Augustus, 
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, 
Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domilian. Ji. C. 31, 
to J2. D. 96. 

1. By the death of Antony, Octavius, now styled Augus- 
tus, become sole master of the Roman empire. Having 
returned in triumph to Rome, he endeavored by sumptuous 
feasts and magnificient shows, to obliterate the impressions 
of his former cruelty, and resolved to secure by acts of 
clemency and benevolence, that throne, the foundation of 
which was laid in blood. Having established order in the 
state, Augustus found himself agitated by different inclina- 
tions, and considered for some time whether he should re- 
tain the imperial authority or restore the republic. By 
Agrippa, he was advised to pursue the latter course; but fol- 
lowing the advice of Maecenas, he resolved to retain the 
sovereign authority. 

2. Augustus, in his administration, affected an appearance 
of great moderation and respect fur the public rights, and 
having gained the affections of the people and his soldiers, 
he endeavored by every means to render permanent their 
attachment. As a general, he was more fortunate than emi- 
nent; though the general character of his reign was pacific, 
still several wars were successfully carried on by his lieu- 
tenants ; he seemed to aim at gaining a character by the arts 
of peace alone : he embelished the city* erected public 
buildings and pursued the policy of maintaining order and 
tranquility in every portion of his vast dominions. During 
his reign, the temple of Janus was closed for the first time 
since the commencement of the second Punie war, and 
$hird time from the reign of Numa. 

Augustus having accompanied Tiberius in his march into- 
Jllyiia, was taken dangerously ill, and on his return, died a& 
Nola, near Capua, in the 76th year of his age, after an illus- 
trious reign of 44 years. 

3. Augustus was possessed of eminent abilities, both as 
a warrior and a statesman ; but the cruelties and treachery 
exercised by him while a member of the triumvirate, have 
left an indellible stain upon his character, and rendered it 
doubtful whether the virtues which he manifested in after 
fife, sprung rather from policy than from principle. The 



ROME. 93 

emperor and his chief minister, Maecenus, were both emi- 
nent patrons of learning and the arts ; and the Augustan 
age of Roman literature has been justly admired by all 
succeeding ages. Among those who distinguished his 
reign, were the celebrated poets Virgil, Horace, and Ovid, 
with Livy, the historian. But the most memorable event 
which took place during the reign of Augustus, was the 
birth of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, which hap- 
pened according to the best authorities, in the 26th year of 
his reign, and four years before the period commonly as- 
signed for the Christian era. 

4. Augustus previous. to his death, had nominated Tibe- 
rius to succeed him in the empire. The new emperor at 
the commencement of his reign, exhibited a show of mod- 
eration and clemency ; but he soon threw off the mask and 
appeared in his natural character, as a cruel and odious ty- 
rant.' The brilliant success of his nephew Germanicus, in 
Germany, excited the jealousy of Tiberius, who recalled 
him to Rome, and is supposed to have caused his death by 
poison. Having then taken into his confidence Sejanus, a 
Roman knight, who became the minister of his cruelty and 
pleasure, he retired to the island of Capreas, and abandoned 
himself to the most infamous debaucheries. Sejanus, now 
possessed of almost unlimited power, committed the most 
fearful cruelties against the citizens of Rome ; Nero and 
Drusus, the sons of Germanicus, were starved to death in 
prison ; Sabinus, Gallus, and other distinguished persons 
were executed upon slight pretenses ; but his career was of 
short duration, being accused of treason, he was suddenly 
precipitated from his elevation and executed by order of the 
senate ; his body was afterwards dragged ignominiously 
through the streets. 

5. This event seemed only to increase the emperor's 
rage for cruelty ; now weary of particular executions, he 
gave orders that all the accused should be put to death with- 
out further examination. When one Carnulius had killed 
himself to avoid the torture ; "Ah," exclaimed Tiberius, 
"how has that man been able to escape me," He died in 
the 78th year of his age and 22d of his reign ; his death 
was hastened either by strangling or poison. In the 18th 
year of this emperor's reign, Jesus Christ suffered death 
upon the cross. 

6. Tiberius adapted for successor, Caligula, who com- 
menced his reign under the most favorable auspices, and 
his first acts were even beneficent and patriotic : but his 



94 ROHti. 

subsequent conduct was marked by every species of human 
depravity. He assumed divine honors, and caused temples 
to be built and sacrifices to be offered to himself as a divin- 
ity. He took such delight in cruelty, that he wished that 
all the Roman people had but one neck, that he might des- 
patch them at a single blow. Happy for mankind his reign 
was of short duration, he was assassinated in the 29th year 
of his age and 4th of his reign, A. D. 41. 

7. After the death of Caligula, his uncle Claudius, and 
grandson of Mark Antony, was raised to the throne. He 
was a man of weak and timid character and a slave to the 
most degrading vices. The only remarkable enterprise 
during his reign, was his expedition into Britain. Caracta- 
cus, the illustrious king of that island, after a brave resist- 
ance, was taken prisoner and carried captive to Rome. As 
he passed through the streets and observed the splendor of 
the city, he exclaimed : " How is it possible, that men pos- 
sessed of such magnificence at home, should envy Carac- 
tacus in an humble cottage in Britain." 

Claudius was poisoned by his wife Agrippina, in the 14th 
year of his reign and 64th of his age, in order to make 
room for Nero, her son by a former husband. A. D. 55. 

8. Nero, now in the seventeenth year of his age, began 
his reign with universal aoprobation ; he was even so much 
inclined to clemency and forgiveness, that when obliged to 
sign a warrant for the execution of a criminal, he would 
exclaim: "Would to heaven that [ had never learned to 
write." He had received an excellent education under the 
philosopher Seneca, and while he followed the counsels of 
his illustrious preceptor, he governed with general applause. 
But as he advanced in age, every trace of virtue vanished 
with his increasing years. Abandoning the advice of his 
virtuous counsellors, he soon gave himself up to every spe- 
cies of . depravity, and rendered his name proverbial in all 
succeeding ages, as a detestable tyrant. The first alarming 
instance of his cruelty, was the execution of his own mother 
Agrippina. Among others who fell victims to his cruelty, 
were Seneca, the philosopher, Burrhus, the prefect of the 
pretorian guard, and Lucan, the poet. 

9. In his wild extravagance he caused the city of Rome 
to be set on fire, that it might exhibit the representation of 
the burning of Troy, and stood upon a high tower that he 
might enjoy the scene. The conflagration continued for 
nine days, and a great part of the city was burnt to ashes. 



ROME. 95 

But in order i*> avert from himself the public odium of 
this action, he openly charged it upon the christians, who 
had now become numerous at Rome, and published against 
them a violent persecution, during which the two illustrious 
apostles St. Peter and St. Paul, suffered martyrdom ; the 
former was crucified with his head downwards ; the latter 
being a Roman citizen, had the honor of dying by the sword. 
Nero having rendered himself contemptible by his follies 
and crimes, was soon destined to finish his career by a trag- 
ical end. The army in Spain having declared against him, 
raised Galba to the throne ; the unhappy tyrant finding 
himself deserled by all and condemned by the senate, 
avoided falling into the hands of his enemies by a volun- 
tary death, in the 14th year of his reign and 32d of his 
age. 

10. On the death of Nero, Galba was acknowledged 
emperor by the senate, as he had been previously declared 
by the legions under his command. He was a man of much 
prudence and virtue, and had acquired a high military rep- 
utation, but he was now in the 72d year of his age, and 
soon became unpopular with the army by his severity and 
parsimony. At length, finding himself unable to sustain 
the duties of the government alone, he adopted for his suc- 
cessor, the virtuous Piso. This measure however gave rise 
to a revolt in the army, headed by Otho, which terminated 
in the death both of the emporor and Piso, after a reign of 
seven months. Tacitus, says of him, that ** Had he never 
ascended the throne, he would have been deemed by all, 
capable of reigning." 

11. Otho was now declared emperor by the army; but 
in Vitellius he found a formidable rival, who now aspired 
to the imperial throne. Otho being defeated, slew himself 
afier a reign of 95 days. Upon this event, Vitellius was 
proclaimed emperor, but having rendered himself odious to 
the people by his profligacy and tyranny, he was assassi- 
nated before he had completed the first year of his reign ; 
at the same time Vespasian, who was now at the head of 
the army in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor by his troop. 
On the arrival of the newly elected emperor at Rome, he 
was received with universal joy. He had risen from an 
humble origin, to the highest station in the state; he was 
equally distinguished for his affability, clemency, and firm- 
ness. He ornamented the city by erecting various edifices, 
built the amphitheatre, or Coliscium. cherished the arts and 
was a patron of learned men, among whom were Josephus, 



96 ROME. 

the Jewish historian, Quintitilian, the orator, and Pliny, the 
naturalist. 

12. The most memorable event of the reign of Vespa- 
sian, was the destruction of Jerusalem by his son Titus ; 
after a tremendous siege of six months, the city was taken 
and razed to the ground, verifying the prediction of our 
divine Saviour, that "not a stone should remain upon a 
stone." According to Josephus,-the number of the Jews 
that perished during the siege exceeded one million, and the 
captives amounted to almost a hundred thousand. Vespa- 
sian having reigned ten years, beloved by his subjects, died 
at Campania, in the 70th year of his age, A. D. 79. 

13. The late emperor was succeeded by his son Titus, 
who, on account of his amiable virtues, justice and human- 
ity, obtained the appellation of the "Delight of mankind." 
Recollecting one evening, that he had done no act of benefi- 
cence during that day, he exclaimed, " My friends, I have 
lost a day." His reign is memorable for the great erup- 
tion of Mount Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of 
Herculaneum and Pompeii, and caused the death of Pliny, 
the naturalist, whose curiosity led him too near the scene. 
Titus died in the third year of his reign, and in the 41st 
of his age; but strong suspicion was entertained that he 
was poisoned by his brother Domitian, who succeeded to 
the throne, A. D. 81. 

14. Domitian was another JNero in his character. He 
caused himself to be worshiped as a god ; many of the 
most illustrious men of Rome, fell victims to his cruelty. 
He banished the philosophers from the city, and raised a 
dreadful persecution against the Christians. He frequent- 
ly shut himself up in his chamber, and amused himself by 
catching flies, and piercing them with a bodkin, hence his 
servant being asked if any one was with the emperor, re- 
plied, "No, not even a fly." His reign was signalized by 
the success of the Roman arms in Britain, under the com- 
mand of Agricola, a distinguished general, who had been 
sent to the country by Vespasian, and conquered all the 
southern portion of the island. Domitian was assassinated 
at the instigation of his wife, in the 15th year of his reign, 
A. I). 96. He was the last of those emperors, called the 
Twelve Caesars; Julius Caesar, the dictator, being consid- 
ered the first; although Augustus was the first, who was 
generally styled emperor. 



ROME. 97 



SECTION VII. 

From Nerva to Constantine the Great. From A. B. 96, 
to 306. 

1. After the death of Domitian, Nerva was elected to 
the throne. He was a man, distinguished for virtue and 
clemency, but did not possess sufficient energy to suppress 
the disorders of the empire ; and having adopted Trajan 
for his successor, he died after a short reign of 16 months. 

2. Trajan, a native of Seville, in Spain, is esteemed one 
of the greatest and most powerful of the Roman emperors ; 
he was equally distinguished for affability, clemency, and 
munificence ; on presenting the sword to the prefect of the 
pretorian guard, he made use of these remarkable words : 
44 Make use of it for me, if I do my duty ; if not, use it 
against me." The senate conferred on him, the title of 
Optimus, the Best ; and that body was long accustomed to 
salute every newly elected emperor with this expression : 
" Reign fortunately, as Augustus, and virtuously as Tra- 
jan." 

S. Trajan was one of the greatest generals of his age ; 
he enlarged the boundaries of the empire, subdued the Par- 
thians, brought under subjection Assyria, Arabia, Felix, 
and Mesopotamia; and in commemoration of his victory 
over the Dacians, he erected a pillar at Rome, which bears 
his name, and which still remains as one of the most re- 
markable monuments of that city. 

He was a munificent patron of literature, and in his reign 
Pliny, the younger, J-uvenal, and Plutarch flourished. Al- 
though this prince was much celebrated for his virtues, still 
his character has been tarnished by a want of equity with 
regard to the Christians who were persecuted during his 
reign. He died of apoplexy, in the 63d year of his age, 
and the 20th of his reign, A. D. 117. 

4. Trajan was succeeded by Adrian, his nephew, who 
in some respects, was the most remarkable of the Roman 
emperors. His administration was generally equitable and 
beneficent; he was highly skillful in all the accomplish- 
ments of the age ; he composed with great beauty, both in 
prose and verse ; he pleaded at the bar, and was one of the 
best orators of his time. Deeming the limits of the em- 
pire too extensive, he abandoned the career of conquest, 
and devoted himself to the arts of peace. He spent 13 



88 ROME. 

years in visiting the provinces of the empire, and during 
his progress, he reformed abuses, relieved his subjects from 
many burdens, and rebuilt various cities. While in Britain, 
he caused a turf wall to be erected across the island, from 
Carlisle to Newcastle, in order to prevent the incursions of 
the Picts. 

5. He rebuilt the city of Jerusalem, and changed its 
isame to iElia Capitolina. In consequence of an insurrec- 
tion of the Jews*, he sent against them, a powerful army, 
which destroyed about 1,000 of their towns, and nearly 
600,000 of these unfortunate people; he then banished all 
those who remained, and by a public decree, forbade them 
to return within view of their native soil. He passed sev- 
eral wise regulations, among which, was a law prohibiting 
masters to kill their slaves, as had been before allowed ; 
but ordained that they should be tried by the laws enacted 
against capital offenses. Adrian, having adopted for his 
successor, Titus Antonius, died after a prosperous reign of 
22 years, and in the 63d year of his age, A. D. 138. 

6. Antonius, surnamed the Pius, was eminently distin- 
guished for his public and private virtues, although his 
reign was marked by few striking events. He showed 
himself one of the most excellent princes, for justice, clem- 
ency and moderation. During his reign, St. Justin, the 
martyr, wrote his Apology for the Christians, and directed 
it to the emperor, the senate, and the people of Rome ; still 
many Christians continued to suffer for their faith. Hav- 
ing adopted Marcus Aurelius Antonius, for his successor, 
he expired at Lorium, near Rome, in the 23d year of his 
reign, and in the 70th of his age, A. D. 161. 

7. Marcus Aurelius, was esteemed as a model of pagan 
virtue, and was greatly attached, both by nature and edu- 
cation, to the Stoic philosophy, which he exemplified in 
his life, as well as illustrated in his book, entitled, ** Medi- 
tations." While engaged in a war with the Germans, his 
army experienced a remarkable deliverance, through the 
prayers of a Christian legion, then serving under his com- 
mand The emperor, in a letter to the senate, after stating 
the distressed situation of his army, says, '• I put up my 
fervent prayers to the gods for our relief; but the gods 
were deaf. I knew there were many Christians in the 
army. I called them around me and commanded them to 
address their God in our behalf. No sooner had they fall- 
en upon their knees to pray, than a copious and refreshing 
rain fell from the heavens. But while the rain was re- 



ROME. 99 

freshing to us, it drove furiously against our enemies, like 
a tempest of hail, attended with vivid flashes of lightning 
and dreadful claps of thunder. Wherefore, since the pray- 
ers of these people are so powerful with their God, let us 
grant to the Christians, full liberty of professing themselves 
such, lest they employ their prayers against us. My will 
is, that their religion be no longer considered a crime in 
them." 

8. The Christian soldiers, who had saved the Roman 
army by their prayers, were afterwards distinguished by 
the name of the "Thundering Legion." Notwithstand- 
ing the humane disposition of Aurelius, many Christians 
suffered during his reign, owing chiefly to the violence of 
Verus, his colleague in the empire. Among the most illus- 
trious who received the crown of martyrdom, were St. Jus- 
tin and St. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna. Aurelius died 
in the 19th year of his reign, and the 59th of his age ; he 
was the last of those, styled " The five good emperors," 
A. D. 180. 

9. Aurelius was succeeded by his degenerate son, Com- 
modus, whose whole reign was a tissue of folly, cruelty 
and injustice ; but his crimes finally brought him to a trag- 
ical end ; he was assassinated in the 13th year of his reign, 
and 32d of his age. Pertinax, a man of humble birth, who 
had risen by his merit, and was styled the "tennis-ball of 
fortune," on account of the various conditions through 
which he had passed, was proclaimed emperor by the pre- 
torian guards. But having given offense by his severity, 
in correcting abuses, he was put to death by the hands of 
the very soldiers, who had raised him to the throne only 
three months before. 

10. The empire was now put up for sale by the soldiers, 
and purchased by Didius Julianus, for the sum of 9,000,- 
000 dollars. But the new emperor only enjoyed the hon- 
ors of royalty for the space of five months, being assassin- 
ated by the order of Septimius Severus, who was pro- 
claimed emperor in his stead. Severus, having triumphed 
over his two competitors, Niger and Albinus, governed 
with great ability. He made an expedition into Britain, 
and built a stone wall extending from Solway frith to the 
German ocean, and nearly parallel with that of Adrian. 
He died at York, in the 18th year of his reign, and in the 
66th of his age. A. D. 211. 

11. Severus left the empire to his two sons, Caracalla 
and Geta, but Caracalla resolving to govern alone, murder- 



100 



ROME. 



ed his brother in his mother's arms. His tyranny and cru 
elty at length, excited against him the resentment of Mac. 
inus, the commander of his forces, who caused him to be 
assassinated in the sixth year of his reign. Macinus was 
immediately declared emperor in his place, but after a reigr 
of 14 months, was in his turn supplanted by Heliogabalus, 
by whose command he was put to death. Heliogabalus 
was only in the 14th year of his age when he succeeded 
to the throne, yet he showed himself to be a monster oi 
vice, extravagance and cruelty ; he was murdered by the 
soldiers, and his body thrown into the Tiber, after a short 
reign of four years, having in that short period, married 
and divorced six wives. 

12. Alexander Severus, his cousin, who was chosen to 
succeed him, was a mild and amiable prince, whose excel- 
lent character shines with redoubled lustre, when contrast- 
ed with those who preceded and followed him. His ac- 
quirements were equal to his virtues ; he excelled in music, 
painting, sculpture, and poetry. During an expedition 
against the Germans, who had made an irruption into the 
empire, he was murdered by a mutiny of his soldiers, in 
the 14th year of his reign, and 29 ih of his age, A. D. 
235. 

13. On the death of Alexander, Maximin, who had 
headed the mutiny against him, was elevated to the throne. 
Maximin was the son of a herdsman of Thrace ; he was 
no less remarkable for the symmetry of his person and ex- 
traordinary strength, than for his gigantic stature, being 
eight feet and a half in height; he was also distinguished 
for his military talents. Previous to his elevation, he was 
remarkable for his simplicity, discipline and virtue ; but af- 
ter his accession to the throne, he became a monster of cru- 
elty, and seemed to sport with the terrors of mankind. He 
was finally assassinated by his soldiers, in the 3d year of 
his reign. 

14. The interval from the reign of Maximin, and that 
of Diocletian, was filled by 16 reigns, which furnish little 
that is pleasing or interesting. Of all the emperors, who 
successively occupied the throne during that period of 46 
years, Claudius and Tacitus, alone, died a natural death. 
The emperor, Valerian, in a war with Sapor, king of Per- 
sia, was defeated and taken prisoner. The Persian mon- 
arch treated his captive with the greatest indignity and cru- 
elty. He used hirn as a footstool for mounting his horse ; 
and finally, ordered him to be put to death, then caused him 



ROME. 101 

be flayed and his skin to be painted red, and suspended 
one of the Persian temples, as a monument of disgrace 
the Romans. 

15. The reign of Aurelian was distinguished for brilliant 
litary achievements. He defeated the Goths, and re- 
led the incursions of the Germans ; but his most re- 
ivned victory, was that over Zenobia, the famous queen 
Palmyra, who fell into his hands ; her secretary, Long- 
is, the celebrated critic, was put to death by the order of 
s conqueror. On his return to Rome, Aurelian was hon- 
sd with a most splendid triumph ; Zenobia was reserved 

grace the scene, bound in chains of gold, and decked 
ih a profusion of pearls and diamonds. 

16. Diocletian, who was the son of a Dalmatian slave, 
e by his merit, from the rank of a common soldier to 
it of an eminent commander, and was finally elevated to 
$ throne, on the death of Numerian, A. D. 284. 

Two years after his accession, he associated with him- 
f, in government, his friend Maximin ; and in 292, they 
•k two other colleagues, Galerius and Constantius, each 
iring the title of Caesar. The empire was now divided 
o four parts, under the government of two emperors and 
o Caesars, each nominally supreme, but in reality con- 
Ued by the superior talents of Diocletian. 

17. At this time happened the tenth and last persecution 
the Christians, which continued for several years with 
much violence, that the tyrants boasted that they had 
tinguished the Christian name. 

Diocletian and Maximin, in the midst of their triumphs, 
prised the world by resigning their dignities on the same 
and both retiring into private station. A. D. 304. It 
generally believed, that they were compelled to take this 
3 by Galerius, who, together with Constantius, was im- 
diately afterwards, acknowledged emperor. Diocletian 
ins to have been contented with his lot; he retired to 
ona, in his native country, Dalmatia, where he lived 
ht years, and amused himself in cultivating a small gar- 
Maximin attempted several times, but in vain, to 
ume the sovereign power, which he had abdicated, and 
n to murder his son-in-law, Constantine ; but being de- 
;ed, he slew himself in despair. 



102 ROME, 



SECTION VIII. 

From the Accession of Constantine, to the Extinction of 
the Western Empire. A. D. 306, to 476. 

1. Const antius died at York, in Britain, having previ- 
ously appointed his son Constantine, surnamed the Great, 
his successor; Constantine had several competitors for the 
crown; of these Maxentius was the most formidable, who 
had made himself master of Italy and Rome. As the em- 
peror was on his march at the head of his army, against 
his rival, he saw in the heaven after mid-day, a luminous 
cross, bearing this inscription in Greek, &v rourae vix.*, "Con- 
quer by this." The circumstance is related by several his- 
torians of that period, particularly by Eusebius in his life of 
Constantine. In consequence of this vision, the emperor 
avowed himself the friend and supporter of Christianity ; 
and caused a splendid banner, called the Labarum, to be 
carried before his army, bearing a representation of the 
cross he had seen in the heavens. He now prosecuted the 
war against Maxentius with redoubled energy. A final 
battle was fought on the banks of the Tiber, in which Con- 
stantine was victorious ; Maxentius himself perished in the 
river, A. D. 312. 

2. On the following day, Constantine made a solemn en- 
try into Rome, where he was received with universal joy 
and hailed as the deliver of the empire. As a lasting monu- 
ment of this event, a magnificent triumphal arch was built 
at the foot of mount Palatine, which remains at the present 
time. He published an edict in favor of Christianity, 
which he now openly embraced, and claims the honor of 
being enrolled as the first Christian emperor. He put an 
end to the persecution of the Christians, also to the combats 
of gladiators, and other barbarous exhibitions. His reign 
forms an important era in ecclesiastical history, as the Ro- 
man government now lent all its influence, to support that 
religion which it had repeatedly attempted to destroy. His 
reign is memorable for the celebrated council of Nice, con- 
vened for the purpose of condemning the heresy of Arius, 
who denied the divinity of Christ. 

3. But the most important event of his reign, was the 
removal of the seat of the empire from Rome to Byzan- 
tium, in Thrace, where he built a magnificent city, called 
from his own name, Constantinople. As the empire had 



ROME. 103 

long been verging to ruin, this measure is thought by many 
to have hastened its downfall. Constantine died at Nico- 
media, after an illustrious reign of 31 years, and the 63d of 
his age, A. D. 337. The character of Constantine has 
been variously represented by different writers. His great- 
est fault was his severity towards his son Crispus, a young 
prince of the most amiable character ; the emperor being 
so far deceived by artful calumny, as to believe htm guilty 
of the most atrocious design, and in the first moment of in- 
dignation, caused him to be put to death. He has also been 
charged with a want of political sagacity in removing the 
seat of government. Still whatever may have been his 
faults, we must admire and esteem his eminent qualities.—- 
The splendor of his military, political, and religions achieve- 
ments, has deservedly gained for him the surname of Great, 
which posterity has conferred upon him. 

4. Constantine left the empire divided between his three 
sons, Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius. In the 
space of a few years, the two former were slain, leaving 
Constantius, the youngest, sole master of the empire. His 
character was marked by weakness, jealousy and cruelty. 
During his reign, the empire was harrassed and weakened 
by the inroads of the barbarians from the north, and the in- 
cursions of the Persians on the eastern provinces. Con- 
stantius died after an unfortunate reign of 24 years, A. D. 
361. 

5. Constantius was succeeded by his cousin, Julian, sur- 
named the Apostate, on account of his having renounced 
Christianity in which he had been educated, and relapsing 
into paganism. He was a man possessed of considerable 
learning, of great military talents, but the slave of the most 
bigoted superstition. He restored the pagan worship, 
and attempted to suppress Christianity. With a design of 
falsifying the prediction of our Saviour, he undertook to re- 
assemble the Jews and to rebuild their temple ; but his de- 
sign is stated, by a number of ancient writers, to have been 
miraculously defeated by the eruption of fire-balls from the 
ground, which dislodged the stones, melted the iron instru- 
ments, and dispersed the workmen. Julian was slain in a 
war with the Persians, in the second year of his reign, and 
the 32d of his age, A. D. 363. 

6. Julian was succeeded by Jovian, who restored the 
Christian religion and recalled St. Athanasius, who had 
been banished by the order of Julian ; but he died sudden- 
ly after a mild and equitable reign of seven months. 



104 ROME. 

Valentinian, who was chosen to succeed him, associated 
with himself in the empire his brother Valens, who govern- 
ed the eastern provinces; and from this period, the division 
of the empire into eastern and western, became fixed and 
permanent. The barbarians continued to make inroads into 
different parts of the empire, and the Goths finally obtained 
a settlement in Thrace. The domestic administration of 
Valentinian was equitable and wise ; his temper, however, 
was violent. On a certain occasion when transported with 
rage, he ruptured a blood vessel and expired in a few hours, 
in the 54th year of his age, and in the 12th of his reign. 

7. In the east, Valens held the sceptre with a weak and 
inefficient hand. Favoring the Arian heresy, he threw the 
provinces into confusion and contention, and at the same 
time exposed his dominions to the inroads of the barbarians. 
He was defeated and slain in an expedition against the 
Goths, in the 15th year of his reign. 

Gratian, the son and successor of Valentinian, associated 
with himself Theodosius, afterwards surnamed the Great. 
The reign of this illustrious monarch was signalized by the 
complete triumph of Christianity, and the downfall of pa- 
ganism throughout the Roman dominions. By his great 
military abilities, he successfully repelled the encroach- 
ments of the barbarians, and by his wise administration, he 
strengthened in some measure the empire, which had been 
already hastening to its ruin. After an illustrious reign of 
18 years, he left his dominions to two sons, Honorius in 
the west, and Arcadius in the east, A. D. 395. 

8. Theodocius was the last monarch who presided over 
both divisions of the empire. By all the authors of that 
period, with the exception of Zosimus, a Pagan writer, he 
is represented as a model of every public and private vir- 
tue, and worthy of the imitation of all Christian princes. 
His inclinations were naturally violent; but if he committed 
any fault contrary to his usual clemency and meekness, he 
soon repaired it in a manner worthy of his character. On 
one occasion, the populace of Thessalonica, in a tumultuous 
insurrection, stoned their governor to death. Theodocius, 
on receiving intelligence of this outrage, in a moment of 
irritation, gave orders for the soldiery to be let loose on the 
inhabitants of the city for three hours ; the commission was 
executed with so much fury, that seven thousand persons 
were put to the sword. No sooner was St. Ambrose, arch- 
bishop of Milan, informed of this awful deed, than he de- 
clared to the emperor that he could not admit him into the 



ROME. 105 

church, until he had atoned by a public penance, for the en- 
ormity of the massacre he had occasioned. Theodocius hum- 
bly submitted to the decision of the prelate, and remained 
excluded from the church for eight months. 

9. During the weak reign of Honorius and Arcadius, the 
barbarians made a successful irruption into the empire, and 
possessed themselves of several of the most fertile prov- 
inces. The Goths, under the famous Alaric spread their 
devastations to the very walls of Constantinople, and filled 
all Greece with the terror of their arms. Alaric, then pene- 
trated into Italy at the head of a powerful army, but was 
defeated with great loss by the Romans under the command 
of Stilico. After the death of this general, Alaric invaded 
Italy a second time, and having taken and pillaged several 
cities, he at length pitched his camp before the walls of 
Rome. This famous city, which had for ages been the mis- 
tress of the world, and had enriched herself by the spoils 
of vanquished nations, was now reduced to the greatest ex- 
tremities by famine and pestilence. 

10. Rome was finally taken by Alaric, who gave up the 
city to be plundered by his soldiers, with a charge to spill 
the blood of none but those whom they found in arms, and 
to spare all those who took refuge in the churches. The 
fearful devastation continued for six days, during which the 
fierce barbarians, notwithstanding the injunctions of the 
chieftain, indulged their cruelty and ferocity without pity 
or restraint. Alaric now prepared to invade Sicily and 
Africa, but death suddenly put an end to all his ambitious 
projects ; but the Goths having elected Ataulphus for their 
leader, took possession of the southern part of Gaul and 
laid the foundation of their kingdom in Spain. 

11. A few years after the sacking of Rome by Alaric, 
the country was again devastated by the Huns, a barbarous 
people of Scythian origin, under the command of Attila, 
their king, styled the scourge of God. Having overrun 
the eastern empire, he invaded Gaul with an army of 
500,000 men; but he was defeated on the plains of Cha- 
lons, by the combined forces of the Romans under iEtius 
and the Goths under Theordoric, with a loss of 160,000 
men. The warlike spirit of Attila was checked by this de- 
feat, but not subdued ; placing himself again at the head of 
his army, he shortly afterwards invaded Italy, and having 
extended his ravages to the gates of Rome, compelled Val- 
entinian III. to purchase a peace by the payment of im- 
mense sums of money, with his sister Honoria in marriage. 

5 



106 ROME. 

Attila died shortly after this event ; and his body is said to 
have been buried, inclosed in three coffins, the first of gold, 
the second of silver, and the third of iron ; and the men 
who dug the grave were put to death, lest they should re- 
veal the place of his burial. 

12. Every circumstance now seemed to hasten the down- 
fall of the empire, which had b^en long on the verge of 
ruin. iEtius, the only man capable of defending it against 
its numerous enemies, was slain by the hand of Valentinian 
himself, on a pretended charge of conspiracy. 

Shortly after this event, Valentinian was assassinated in 
his turn, at the instigation of Petronus Maximus, who was 
proclaimed emperor in his stead, and the empress Eudoxia 
invited Genseric, king of the Vandals, to avenge the mur- 
der of her husband. He eagerly embraced ihe opportunity, 
landed in Italy with a numerous army of Moors and Van- 
dals, took the city of Rome, which he gave up to his sol- 
diers to be pillaged for eleven days ; and after having des- 
troyed many of the monuments of art and literature which 
Alaric had spared, and enriched himself with the spoils of 
the city, he returned to Carthage. 

13. From the reign of Valentinian III. the Western em- 
pire dragged out a precarious existence under nine succes- 
sive emperors, for the space of 21 years, until its final ter- 
mination in 476, by the resignation of Romulus Augustus, 
the last of its emperors, to Odoacer, the chief of the Heruli, 
who assumed the title of king of Italy. Thus terminated 
the Roman empire in the West, twelve hundred and twenty- 
nine years after the building of the city, and five hundred 
and seven years after the battle of Actium. Such, observes 
Goldsmith, was the end of this mighty empire, which had 
conquered mankind by its arms, and instructed the world 
by its wisdom ; which had risen by temperance and fell by 
luxury ; which had been established by a spirit of patriot- 
ism and sunk to ruin when the empire had become so ex-" 
tensive that a Roman citizen was but an empty name. 



ROME. 107 

SECTION IX. 

Roman Antiquities. 

1. The political state or government among the Romans, 
varied very much during the successive periods of its exist* 
ance. It was at first a monarchy ; it afterwards became a 
republic, with a preponderance of aristocratic power, which 
gradually gave way to the influence of the people. The 
republican form of government was overthrown by Julius 
Caesar, and finally destroyed by Augustus, when it became 
a despotic monarchy. 

2. The kings of Rome were not absolute or hereditary, 
but limited and elective. They could neither enact laws nor 
make war or peace, without the consent of the senate and 
people. They wore a white robe, adorned with stripes of 
purple or fringed with the same color; their crown was 
gold and their sceptre was made of ivory. They sat in the 
curule chair, which was a chair of state made of ivory ; 
and they were attended by twelve lictors, carrying fasces, 
which were a bundle of rods, with an axe bound in the 
middle of them. 

3. The senate at first consisted of one hundred members, 
but was afterwards increased to two hundred by Tarquin 
the Elder, and towards the latter days of the republic, it 
consisted of one thousand. The senators were at first 
nominated by the king, but afterwards chosen by the con- 
suls, and finally by the censors. They usually assembled 
three times a month, but oftener if special business required 
it. A decree passed by a majority of the senate and ap- 
proved of by the tribunes of the people, was termed a sen- 
ates consultum. The senators were styled patres, or fath- 
ers, on account of their age, gravity, and paternal care of 
the state ; and from them the patricians derived their desig- 
nation. The magistrates of the Roman republic were elec- 
tive, and previous to their election they were called candi- 
date or candidates, from the white robe w^iich they wore 
while soliciting the votes of the people. 

4. The consuls had the same badges as the kings with 
the exception of the crown ; and their authority was near- 
ly equal, except that it was limited to one year. In dan- 
gerous conjunctures, they were clothed with absolute pow- 
er by the solemn decree, " that the consuls take care that 
the commonwealth sustain no harm." In order to be a 



108 ROME. 

candidate for the consulship, the person was required to be 
43 years of age. The praetors were next in dignity to the 
consuls, and in their absence supplied their place ; it was 
their duty to preside at the assemblies of the people, and 
to convene the senate upon any emergency. 

5. The office of censor was esteemed more honorable 
than that of consul, though attended with less power. 
There were two censors, chosen every five years, and their 
most important duty was to take, every fifth year, the cen- 
sus of the people, after which they made a solemn lustra- 
tion, or expiatory sacrifice in the Campus Martins. The 
tribunes were officers, created to protect the plebeians 
against the patricians. The ediles were officers whose 
duty it was to take care of the public edifices, baths, aque- 
ducts, roads, markets, &c. The questors were elected by 
the people, to take care of the public revenue. They were 
of two orders; the military questors who accompanied the 
army and took care of the payment of soldiers, and the 
provincial questors, who attended the consuls into the prov- 
inces and received the taxes and tribute. 

6. The assemblies of the people, in order to elect their 
magistrates, or to decide concerning war or peace, and the 
like, were called a comitia ; of which there were three 
kinds, the curiata, centuriata, and the tributa. The com- 
itia curiata consisted of an assembly of the resident Ro- 
man citizens, who were divided into thirty curias. The 
comitia centuriata were the principal assembly of the peo- 
ple, in which they gave their votes according to the cen- 
sus. They elected during these comitia, the consuls, prae- 
tors, and censors ; important laws were enacted, and cases 
of high treason were tried ; and they were held in the 
Campus Martius. The comitia tributa were an assembly, 
in which the people voted in tribes, according to their re- 
gions and wards ; and they were held to create inferior 
magistrates, to elect certain priests, <fec. The comitia con- 
tinued to be assembled for upwards of 700 years, until the 
time of Julius Caesar, who abridged that liberty, and shared 
with the people, the right of creating the magistrates ; Au- 
gustus infringed still further on this right, and Tiberius 
finally deprived the people altogether of the privilege of 
election. 

7. The priests among the Romans, did not form a dis.- 
tinct order of the citizens, but were chosen from the most 
honorable men of the state. The pontifices, fifteen in num- 
ber, were priests who judged all causes relating to religion, 



ROME. 109 

regulated the feasts, sacrifices, and all other sacred institu- 
tions. The pontifex maximus, or high priest, was a per- 
son of great dignity and authority ; he held his office for 
life, and all other priests were subject to him. The au- 
gurs were fifteen in number, whose duty it was to foretell 
future events, to interpret dreams, oracles, prodigies, &c. 
The haruspices were priests, whose business it was to ex- 
amine the beasts offered in sacrifice, and from them to di- 
vine the success of any enterprise, and to obtain omens of 
futurity. The quindecemviri, were fifteen priests who had 
the charge of the Sibylline books, which were three pro- 
phetic volumes, said to contain the fate of the Roman em- 
pire ; they were procured from a woman of extraordinary 
appearance, during the reign of Tarquin the Proud. The 
Vestal Virgins were females, consecrated to the worship of 
Vesta. 

8. The gladiators were persons who fought with wea- 
pons in the public circus or amphitheatre, for the amuse- 
ment of the people. These combats were introduced about 
400 years after the foundation of the city, and became the 
most favorite entertainment. The combatants were at first 
composed of captive slaves and condemned malefactors ; 
but in the more degenerate period of the empire, free-born 
citizens, and even senators engaged in this inhuman and 
disgraceful amusement, in which numbers were destroyed. 
After the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, spectacles 
were exhibited for 123 days, in which 11,000 animals of 
different kinds, were killed, and 10,000 gladiators fought. 

9. The toga and the tunica were the most distinguished 
part of the Roman dress. The toga, or gown, worn by 
the Roman citizen only, was loose and flowing, and cov- 
ered the whole body ; it had no sleeves, and w T as disposed 
in graceful folds, which gave the wearer a majestic appear- 
ance. The toga virilis was assumed by young men, at the 
age of 17 years. The tunica, or tunic, was a white wool- 
en vest, which came down below the knees and was fasten- 
ed about the waist by a girdle. The dress of the women 
was similar to that of the men ; their tunic, however, was 
longer, and furnished with sleeves ; they wore jewels, 
bracelets, rings, and various other ornaments in great pro- 
fusion. Hats and caps were worn by the Romans, only 
on journeys, or the public games ; in the city they usually 
went without any covering on the head. 

10. The principal meal among the Romans was their 
supper, which they took about four o'clock in the after- 



110 ROME. 

noon ; their breakfast was not a regular meal, it was taken 
by each one separately, and without order, and their din- 
ner was only a slight repast. In the early ages, the diet of 
the Romans, consisted chiefly of milk and vegetables, and 
they sat upright at the table on benches; but in the latter 
days of the republic, when riches were introduced by their 
conquests, luxury was carried to excess, and they then re- 
clined at their meals on sumptuous couches. These couches 
were similar to the modern sofa, and generally calculated 
to hold three persons ; they so reclined upon them, that 
the head of the one was opposite the breast of the other, 
and in serving themselves, they used only one hand. 

11. Fathers at Rome, were generally invested with the 
power of life and death over their children. The exposure 
of infants, was at first, somewhat frequent, but at length 
entirely ceased. Slaves constituted a large portion of the 
population of Rome. Their lives were at the disposal of 
their masters. They were not only employed in domestic 
service, but also in various trades and manufactures. They 
were considered as mere property, and were publicly ^old 
in the market place ; and if capitally convicted, their pun- 
ishment was crucifixion. At the feasts of Saturn, and at 
the Ides of August, the slaves were allowed great privi- 
leges, and masters at those periods, waited on them at ta- 
ble. 

12. The system of education among the Romans, which 
v/as in its highest state of improvement during the reign 
of Augustus, was much admired. The utmost attention 
was bestowed on the early formation of the mind and 
character. The Roman matrons themselves, nursed their 
own children, and next to the care bestowed on their mor- 
als, a remarkable degree of attention seems to have been 
given to their language. From the earliest dawn of reason, 
a regular course of discipline was pursued by some ma- 
tron of the family, and as the children grew towards man- 
hood, they were habituated to all the athletic exercises, that 
could impart agility or grace, and fit them for the profes* 
sion of arms. Eloquence and the military art, were the 
surest road to preferment. Oratory, which led to the high- 
est honors in the state, was the favorite study at Rome, 
and was taught as a science in the public schools. Poetry, 
among the Romans, as with most of other nations, appears 
to have been the earliest intellectual efforts. The names 
that adorn the Roman drama, are those of Livius Androni- 
cus, Ennius, Plautus, and Caecilius. In epic poetry, Vir» 



ROME. Ill 

g-'il has excelled all other poets of ancient times, with the 
exception of Homer. Philosophy was first taught at Rome, 
about the end of the third Punic war, and was introduced 
from Greece. The system of the Stoics, was at first most 
generally received ; the philosophy of Aristotle was after- 
wards greatly cultivated; but with the introduction of lux- 
ury, the philosophy of Epicurus became fashionable. 



JEWISH HISTORY. 



SECTION I. 

The Early History of the Jews, until their deliverance 
from Egypt. 

1. The Jews, commonly called the people of God, de- 
rive their origin from Abraham, the son of Zerah, the tenth, 
in lineal descent from Shem, the son of Noah. The call 
of Abraham is a remarkable event in his history, and took 
place 1921 years before the Christian era. Abraham in- 
tended to settle in Haram, but in obedience to the will of 
God, he removed to the land of Canaan, which was ap- 
pointed to be the inheritance of his posterity. After his 
arrival there, his first care was to erect an altar for the wor- 
ship of God, who appeared to him, and confirmed the pro- 
mise, which he had before made, of giving - the country to 
his children. When he had lived some time in Canaan, a 
famine compelled him to remove his family into Egypt, 
where he resided until the famine ceased, and then again 
returned. 

2. Shortly after this time, happened the remarkable visi- 
tation of the divine wrath on Sodom, and several other 
cities. The crimes of these cities, cried aloud to heaven 
for vengeance ; accordingly, three angels, in the form of 
young men, were sent to destroy them. Abraham having 
entertained the heavenly visitors in his tent, accompanied 
them on their way to Sodom, and obtained from them, that 
Lot and his family should be spared. Lot was therefore, 
admonished to depart with his wife and his two daughters ; 
but scarcely had he reached a place of safety, when Sodom 
and Gomorrah, with two other cities, were consumed by 
fire that fell from heaven, leaving the site on which they 
stood, and the country in the vicinity, a lake, called at the 



JEWISH HISTORY. 113 

present time, the Dead Sea, the water of which is clear 
and heavy, but extremely nauseous and bitter to the taste. 
When the noise of the falling- fire was heard, Lot's wife 
forgetful of the injunction of the angels, looked back upon 
the city ; but her curiosity was punished on the spot; she 
was changed into a pillar of salt, to serve as a warning to 
those, who, at any time, cast back a wishful look on the 
sinful objects, which they have once forsaken. 

3. Sarah, the wife of Abraham, when far advanced in 
years, brought him a son, who was called Isaac. When 
Isaac had grown up, God, to try the faith of Abraham, 
commanded him to offer his son in sacrifice on a mountain, 
which he should point out to him. The holy patriarch 
obeyed without hesitation, but at the moment when his 
hand was raised to strike' the victim, an angel was sent to 
stop his arm, and to assure him that God was satisfied with 
the readiness of his obedience. Isaac was afterwards mar- 
ried to Rebecca, the mother of Esau and Jacob. Jacob, 
by the command of the Lord, took the name Israel, hence 
his posterity were called Israelites, or children of Israel. 

4. Jacob had twelve sons, of whom Joseph was partic- 
ularly loved by his father, and on that account, hated by 
the rest of his brothers. On a certain occasion, as they 
were tending their flocks, at some distance from home, Jo- 
seph was sent by his father to see how they conducted 
themselves ; they immediately seized, and sold him as a 
slave, to some Ishmaelite merchants, and told his father 
that he had been devoured by wild beasts. The merchants 
carried him into Egypt, and sold him to Potiphar, an offi- 
cer of the court. Joseph served Potiphar with so much 
fidelity, that he soon committed to him the care of his 
household. The wife of Potiphar repeatedly attempted to 
seduce Joseph to the commission of a flagitious crime, but 
the virtuous youth rejected her proposals with disdain; but 
she, incensed at this, maliciously accused him of an at- 
tempt against her honor. On this false accusation, Joseph 
was thrown into prison, where he languished for several 
years. 

5. At length, Pharaoh, the king of Egypt, had two 
dreams that greatly perplexed him, and could find no one 
in Egypt able to interpret them. Finally he was informed 
of a Hebrew servant, then in prison, who had wisely in- 
terpreted the dreams of two of his officers ; this was Jo- 
seph, who, on being introduced to the king, explained his 
dreams, and told him that they predicted jan abundant pro- 

5* 



114 JEWISH HISTORY. 

duct of the earth for seven years, and afterwards a famine 
for the same space of time. /Upon this he was not only 
released from prison, but appointed to administer the affairs 
of Egypt under Pharaoh. 

6. During the famine which followed, all his brothers, 
with the exception of Benjamin, went into Egypt, for the 
purpose of buying provisions. Joseph knew them; but he 
was unknown to them ; he therefore asked them, as if 
strangers to him, from whence they had come, and whether 
they were spies. They answered him with profound re- 
spect, that they had come into Egypt with the honest in- 
tention of buying corn ; that they were twelve brothers, 
that one of them, no longer existed, and that the youngest, 
called Benjamin, was left at home with his father Jacob in 
Canaan. The name of Benjamin touched the inmost feel- 
ing of Joseph's breast ; he therefore determined to have 
him brought into Egypt. For this purpose, he seemed to 
give no credit to their words, and said, that, to assure him- 
self of the truth of their account, one of them should re- 
main as a hostage, until their younger brother should be 
brought into Egypt. Therefore retaining Simeon, the rest 
were permitted to dapart. 

7. Upon their return home, they informed their father of 
all that had passed, and particularly of the engagement they 
were under of taking Benjamin into Egypt, where Simeon 
was detained as a pledge of their promise. Nothing could 
exceed the grief of the aged father on receiving this intelli- 
gence ; he bemoaned his misfortunes ; he spoke of his 
children, and became inconsolable at the thought of parting 
with the last and dearest of his sons. Joseph, said he, is 
no more, Simeon is in chains, and must Benjamin, also, be 
taken from me ? No, I will not consent; to part with him 
would wring my very soul with grief, and carry my gray 
hairs in anguish to the grave. 

8. Jacob, however, at length consented to the departure 
. of Benjamin, who accompanied his brothers on their return 

to Egypt. They were kindly received by Joseph, who 
finally made himself known to them in these words, " I 
am Joseph ; does my father yet live ?" Struck silent with 
amazement, they were for some time unable to reply. Jo- 
seph wept and tenderly embraced them all ; but with greater 
feeling he threw himself upon the neck of Benjamin and 
pressed him to his breast. He then told them to hasten to 
their father and let him know that his son Joseph was still 
alive, and to bring him down into Egypt. Jacob accord- 



JEWISH HISTORY. 115 

ingly removed with all his family into Egypt, and Joseph 
assigned them a residence in the land of Goshen, a fertile 
district situated between the Nile and the Red Sea. 

9. Jacob lived seventeen years after his removal into 
Egypt. Upon being informed of his illness, Joseph, with 
filial piety, hastened to pay the last duties of affection to 
his dying father. The venerable patriarch raised himself 
in his bed at his son's approach and spoke to him of the 
inheritance which God had promised to his seed in the land 
of Canaan, where he desired his remains to be removed 
after his death. He called his other sons around his bed 
and gave to each a special blessing : the most memorable 
was that which he spoke of Judah ; in which he expressly 
declared, that from his race the Messiah, the expected of 
all nations, should be born ; and that this great event should 
take place at or near the time, when the sovereign power 
should be entirely taken away from the Jewish nation. 
Jacob died in the 147th year of his age. 

10. Joseph, after the death of his father, continued to 
rule over Egypt until his death, which occurred about the 
year 1635 A. C. In less than forty years after this event, 
a total change took place in the affairs of Egypt ; a new 
king occupied the throne who knew not Joseph, and forget- 
ful of his administration, cruelly oppressed the Hebrew 
people. To check their increase and prosperity, the most 
rigorous measures were adopted ; their lives were imbitter- 
ed by hard service at public works, and all their male chil- 
dren were ordered to be thrown into the river Nile. 

It. After much suffering, God raised up a deliverer of 
his chosen people, who should rescue them from a state of 
cruel servitude and bring them out of the land of bondage. 
This deliverer was Moses, the most distinguished person- 
age of ancient times In consequence of Pharaoh's inhu- 
man decree, Moses was exposed by his mother on the 
banks of the Nile, and was found by the king's daughter, 
who compassionately adopted him and thus saved his life. 
Before the obdurate heart of Pharaoh could be induced to 
consent to the departure of the Hebrews, a number of ex- 
traordinary and supernatural events took place, called the 
ten plagues of Egypt. The first of these plagues was the 
change of the waters of the Nile, and of all the wells of 
Egypt, into blood ; and by the last the whole land was 
covered with darkness for three days. 

12. Pharaoh at length consented to allow Moses to con- 
duct the Israelites into the wilderness for three days to per- 



116 JEWISH HISTORY. 

form their religious duties. At the expiration of this time, 
finding that they did not return, he put himself at the head 
of his army and resolved to pursue them. Moses retreated 
until he came to the shore of the Red Sea, where, seeing 
the hosts of Egypt pressing forward, he extended his arm 
over the profound abyss, as God commanded him ; the 
waters suddenly divided and opened a passage to the oppo- 
site shore. The Israelites immediately entered the dry 
hollow of the deep, amazed at the watery bounds that stood 
suspended as walls upon their right and on their left. 

13. Pharaoh, insensible of the miracle and thinking the 
passage as safe and as free for him as the Israelites, entered 
precipitately after them, with all his army, and advanced to 
the middle of the abyss before he became sensible of his 
danger. By this time, Moses, who with all his followers, 
had reached the other shore, stretched forth his hand again 
over the sea, and called back the waters to their natural 
state. Shut up within the bosom of the deep, the whole 
Egyptian host perished, with the loss of their chariots and 
arms. 

14. The Israelites, after their deliverance from Egypt, 
wandered through the desert for forty years, during which 
time they received many signal proofs of the divine favor 
in their regard. They were supplied with food by manna, 
which fell regularly every morning, except on the Sabbath. 
On one occasion, when they were greatly in want of wa- 
ter, Moses supplied them with that element, by striking a 
rock with his rod and causing a stream to issue from it. 
In the second year after their deliverance from Egypt, 
Moses numbered the children of Israel, and found them to 
amount to 603,550 men, besides women and children. 
When they arrived at Mount Sinai, God gave them his di- 
vine law, amidst thunder and lightning. Moses was the 
only person allowed to ascend the mountain, and during 
his absence, the ungrateful Israelites fell into idolatry, and 
worshiped a golden calf. 

15. Moses, after forty days and nights spent in his se- 
cret interview, received two tables of stone from God, who 
had engraved upon them, as the scripture expresses it, with 
his own hand, the ten commands. In these ten fundamen- 
tal precepts, are contained an admirable summary of our va- 
rious duties to God and to man. We are directed to adore 
one only Deity, the author of all blessings ; we are com- 
manded to reverence his holy name ; and are reminded of 
the dreadful vengeance denounced against those, who shall 



JEWISH HISTORY. 117 

transfer to idols, or to the creature, that worship which is 
due only to the Creator. To prevent the neglect of those 
sacred obligations, we are commanded to abstain from work 
one day in each week, that it may be more immediately 
devoted to the duties of religion. Four of the precepts of 
the Mosaic code comprehend the principles of universal 
jurisprudence. Thou shalt not kill : Thou shalt not com- 
mit adultery : Thou shalt not steal : Thou shalt not bear 
false witness. They have formed the basis of criminal 
law in all civilized nations, and are essential to the good 
order of society. 

16. When Moses descended from the mountain, and 
found the people worshiping a golden calf, transported 
with holy indignation at the sight, he threw down the ta- 
bles of the law, and broke them into pieces : then seizing 
the idol, he immediately broke it down and cast it into the 
fire ; and placing himself at the entrance of the camp, he 
proclaimed aloud, that all those who still retained a sense 
of their duty to God, should come forth and join him. 
The faithful tribe of Levi, having arranged themselves by 
his side, Moses ordered them to march through the camp, 
and put to death all who came in their way. The order 
was immediately executed, and above 20,000 men were 
put to death, to expiate the guilt of those who remained. 

17. Moses, by the express command of God, having 
prepared two tables of stone, like those he had broken, 
went again to the summit of Sinai, where he received the 
same words engraved on them, which had been engraved 
on the first. When he came down from the mountain and 
approached the camp, the Israelites perceived a bright halo 
of glory, which encircled his countenance, and made them 
afraid to approach him. Being told the cause of their 
dread, he covered his face with a veil, which he afterwards 
continued to wear. Moses then caused the tabernacle to 
be built, which was a quadrangular tent, thirty cubits in 
length, and nine in breadth. The inside of the tabernacle 
was hung with richly embroidered tapestry, and was divi- 
ded into two parts by four pillars, before which was sus- 
pended a veil of the most exquisite needlework, variegated 
with the brightest coloring of purple and scarlet. The 
apartment, inclosed behind the veil, was called the holy of 
holies, and the space between the veil and the entrance, 
was called the sanctuary. The tabernacle being finished, 
the ark of the covenant was made. It measured two cu- 
bits and a half in length, one and a half in breadth, and 



118 JEWISH HISTORY. 

the same in height ; it was made of incorruptible wood, 
plated within and without, with the purest gold ; and cov- 
ered with a lid, also of solid gold, which was called the 
mercy-seat. On the mercy-seat, were placed two cherubs 
face to face, with their wings extended, so as to cover the 
ark. The ark when finished was placed in the tabernacle. 

18. About this time, Moses sent twelve men to survey 
the land of Canaan ; all with the exception of Joshua and 
Caleb, gave an unfavorable report, which caused the people 
to murmur. In consequence of this offense, God condemned 
all those who were twenty years of age, when they left 
Egypt, to die in the wilderness, except Joshua and Caleb. 

The earth opened and swallowed Korah, Dathan, and 
Abiratn, for heading a revolt against Moses, at the same 
time fire descended and destroyed two hundred and fifty of 
those who had participated in their offense. Moses, at 
length died at the age of 120 years, on mount Nebo, in the 
land of Moab, having first taken a view of the promised 
land, which he was not permitted to enter. After the death 
of Moses, Joshua was acknowledged his successor in the 
supreme temporal command, who, having conquered the 
various nations that opposed him, and having surmounted 
innumerable obstacles, finally conducted the Israelites into 
the land of promise. 



SECTION II. 

The government of the Judges ; the regal government ; 
the restoration of the Jews from captivity. 

1 . The period during the government of the judges, was 
extremely turbulent, and marked by an almost uninterrupted 
series of hostilities with their warlike neighbors. We are 
not informed for a certainty, as to the manner of choosing 
the judges, and what was the extent of their power. They 
appear to have been military chiefs for the command of the 
army, and some of them acquired a distinguished fame by 
their successful expeditions against the enemies of their 
country. The most distinguished of those who filled the 
office of judge, were the two last, Eli and Samuel. Eli, 
who united in his person the duties of judge, with the func- 
tions of high-priest, appears to have been incapable of dis- 



JEWISH HISTORY. 119 

charging the obligations dependent on these two important 
offices. The people fell into idolatry, and in punishment of 
their crimes, were subjugated by an ancient nation called the 
Philistines. In a great battle with the Philistines, the He- 
brew army was defeated with dreadful slaughter, the two 
sons of Eli were slain, and the ark of the covenant fell into 
the hands of the enemy. At the news of this disaster, the 
venerable high-priest, Eli, now sightless with age, fell back- 
ward from his seat and expired on the spot. 

2. The next and last judge of the Hebrews, was Samuel 
the prophet, A. C. 1112. He brought back the people to 
a sense of their duty, and soon restored the fallen glory of 
Israel, by a signal victory over the Philistines. Peace was 
restored, public virtue again flourished, and Samuel for 
twenty years governed the Hebrew nation, with wisdom 
and prudence. When age had rendered him incapable of 
executing his laborious duties, he united his two sons with 
him in the administration of the government. But the con- 
duct of Samuel's sons, who did not inherit their father's 
virtue, gave offense to the Israelites, and they desired to be 
governed by a king, like the other nations around them. 
Samuel at length yielded to their request, and privately 
anointed Saul, the son of Cis, of the tribe of Benjamin, as 
king of Israel. Samuel then assembled the tribes, that they 
might elect a person to rule over them, and having cast their 
votes, the lot fell upon the very person of Saul. 

3. This event confirmed what had already passed in pri- 
vate, and indisputably proves, that God presides over and 
directs the affairs of man. The name of Saul was imme- 
diately echoed through the tribes ; and on being presented 
before them, the whole multitude exclaimed, God save the 
king. This event took place after the government of the 
judges had subsided, with some intermission, for 356 years 
from the time of Joshua, A. C. 1091. 

4. The beginning of the reign of Saul was auspicious, 
and distinguished by a complete victory over the Philis- 
tines, Amonites, and other nations. He was at length or- 
dered by Almighty God, through the prophet Samuel, to 
destroy the Amalecites, an idolatrous and perfidious nation, 
the ever declared enemies of the Hebrew people ; and not 
to reserve the least thing that belonged to them. In obedi- 
ence to this order, Saul put himself at the head of his army 
and marched against that devoted people ; but far from com- 
plying with, the letter of his instructions, he spared the life 
of their king, reserved the choicest of the flocks, and took 



120 JEWISH HISTORY. 

to himself the most precious of the spoils. On account of 
this and other acts of disobedience, Samuel on the part of 
God, declared to Saul, that the kingdom of Israel should 
be taken from him, and transferred to another. According- 
ly, Samuel, by the divine direction, privately anointed Da- 
vid, king, and appointed him to succeed to the throne, which 
Saul had forfeited by his crimes. The whole reign of Saul, 
was a continued series of foreign or domestic troubles ; be- 
ing at length defeated in a war with the Philistines, he killed 
himself, by falling upon his own sword, after a reign of 40 
years, A. C. 1051. 

5. David, who had been anointed king by Samuel, before 
the death of Saul, and held his title by divine appointment, 
was therefore acknowledged by the powerful tribe of Judah. 
He found, however, a powerful rival in Isboseth, the son of 
Saul, who founded his claim on the right of descent, and 
was supported by many of the tribes. A civil war ensued, 
which continued for seven years, and was finally terminated 
by the death of Isboseth ; after this event all the tribes sub- 
mitted to David, and the crown became hereditary in his 
family. 

6. The reign of David was illustrious and interesting. 
He enlarged the bounds of his kingdom, took Jerusalem, 
which he made the capital of his dominions, and enriched 
himself and his subjects, by the spoils of his enemies. He 
revived among the people an attachment for religion, by the 
institution of solemn ceremonies ; and he introduced a taste 
for the arts, by inviting into the country able artists, for the 
completion of the magnificent edifices which he erected. 
The latter part of his reign was imbittered by severe afflic- 
tion. The kingdom was ravaged by pestilence, famine, and 
disastrous wars. His mind was harrassed by domestic mis- 
fortunes. Some of his sons were disobedient and wicked. 
His favorite son Absalom, excited a rebellion against his 
father, with a design of dethroning him ; but he was de- 
feated and slain. David caused his son Solomon, to be 
crowned in the year 1011, before the Christian era, and 
died the following year, having reigned seven years and a 
half over Judah, and thirty-three years over all Israel. 

7. During the reign of Solomon, the kingdom of Israel 
rose to a higher degree of prosperity, felicity, and glory, 
than it enjoyed at any former or subsequent period. He 
directed the councils of all the petty states, situated between 
the Euphrates and Mediterranean ; and held the balance of 
power between the two great monarchies of Egypt and As- 



JEWISH HISTORY. 121 

syria. Commerce was in a high degree nourishing; the 
vessels of Israel, under the direction of Tyrian mariners, 
traded to the land of Ophir, which is supposed to be a dis- 
trict of Ethiopia, on the eastern coast of Africa. By these 
lucrative voyages, they augmented the wealth of the nation, 
which David had already enriched by the spoils of war. 
But this prosperity began at length to decline. Solomon, 
elated by the uniform prosperity which attended his reign, 
set no bounds to his magnificence and luxury, and in order 
to support his profuse expenditure, laid heavy taxes upon 
the people ; this finally alienated the affections of his sub- 
jects, and towards the close of his reign, gave rise to a 
powerful faction, headed by a young man called Jeroboam. 

8. The most remarkable event, in the reign of Solomon, 
was the building of a magnificent temple at Jerusalem, 
which was completed in the space of seven years. The 
plan had been formed by David, and materials, workmen, 
and money provided for its erection. It was probably the 
most superb and costly fabric of ancient times. 

The wisdom of Solomon is proverbial. The books of 
Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, are ascribed to him, either as the 
author or collector ; they abound with precepts and maxims, 
applicable to every state and condition of life. But not- 
withstanding the superior wisdom, for which Solomon has 
been so justly celebrated, he appears to have been immersed 
in sensual pleasures. He married no fewer than a thous- 
and wives, seven hundred of whom held the rank and title 
of queens. The influence of these women, chosen for the 
most part from idolatrous nations, led him into effeminacy 
and neglect of his important duties to God and his people ; 
and their influence and superstitions at length drew him into 
idolatry. He died after an illustrious reign of forty years, 
leaving the world in doubt whether his memory be more 
worthy of praise or censure, whether he died a friend or 
enemy of his Creator, A. C. 971. 

9. With Solomon, expired the grandeur and tranquility 
of the Hebrews. Upon' the accession of his son Rehoboam, 
to the throne, the faction of Jeroboam broke out into open 
rebellion, and terminated in the revolt of the ten tribes, from 
their allegiance to the house of David, leaving only the two 
tribes of Judah and Benjamin, loyal to their lawful sover- 
eign. The revolted tribes elected Jeroboam for their king, 
and the monarchy was thus devided into two separate king- 
doms, of Israel and Judah. 



122 JEWISH HISTORY. 

10. The policy of Jeroboam, produced a religious as 
well as a political separation. Being persuaded, that should 
he permit his subjects to go into the kingdom of Judah, in 
order to perform the duties of religion in the temple at Je- 
rusalem, they would by degrees lose their respect for his 
authority, and perhaps return to the allegiance of their 
former sovereign ; he therefore ordered two new temples 
to be built, the one at Bethel, and the other at Dan ; and in 
them two golden calves to be set up, and divine honors to 
be paid to them, as to the God who had conducted the chil- 
dren of Israel out of the land of Egypt. Jeroboam, after 
a turbulent reign of twenty-two years, finished a wicked 
life by an unhappy end. His name is never mentioned in 
holy scripture, but with detestation, on account of his hav- 
ing set up the worship of idols, which was continued by 
all the kings who succeeded to the throne of Israel, until 
an end was put to that kingdom by the Assyrians. 

11. After this memorable epoch, the history of the two 
kingdoms of Israel and Judah, for a period of almost 400 
years, exhibits a series of disunion, vice, wars, massacres, 
servitude, and affliction, from famine and pestilence. At 
length, the kingdom of the ten tribes was extinguished. 
The people were transported into Assyria, and dispersed 
into different parts of the country, from which they never 
returned. The few left in Canaan were intermixed with 
strangers, and from that mixture of different nations origi- 
nated a race of people, who were afterwards known, by 
the name of Samaritans. This event took place about 720 
A. C. ; after the kingdom had subsisted 254 years. 

12. The tottering kingdom of Judah still continued to 
enjoy a precarious existence; it was invaded at different 
times by the Babylonians; at length rendered tributary, 
and finally subjugated ; its metropolis, the city of Jerusa- 
lem was destroyed, the temple was demolished by the 
order of the conqueror, Nebuchadnezzar ; all the principal 
inhabitants were stripped of everything valuable, and car- 
ried captives to Babylon. Thus ended the kingdom o*f 
Judah, after it had subsisted 468 years from the beginning 
of the reign of David, and 388 years after the separation 
of the ten tribes. 

13. The privation of liberty, and the miseries of bon- 
dage seem to have brought the Jewish people to a sense of 
their past transgressions. Unable to resist the power of 
man, they now placed their sole confidence in the goodness 
and mercy of God, who heard their supplications and look- 



JEWISH HISTORY. 123 

ed with compassion on their sufferings. Cyrus, king of 
Persia, having conquered Babylon, published a decree by 
which the Jewish people were set at liberty, and permitted 
to return to their native country, after they had languished 
in captivity for 70 years : the decree moreover, allowed 
them to rebuild Jerusalem and their temple, of which Cy- 
rus gave them a new plan, and ordered that the expense of 
erecting it should be paid out of the royal treasury. He 
also restored to them all the sacred vessels, which had been 
brought to Babylon, by Nebuchadnezzar, when the temple 
was destroyed. In consequence of this edict, about 42,000 
of the Jewish people commenced their march toward their 
native country, where they arrived about 536 years before 
the Christian era. From this period, the Israelites, who 
returned from captivity, are properly called Jews, because 
the tribe of Judah was by far the most powerful after their 
restoration to liberty. 



SECTION III. 

From the restoration of the Jews to their native country, 
to the Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans. 

1. Many of the Jews remained at Babylon, while those 
who returned to Palestine began the work of rebuilding 
the temple with alacrity and vigor. When it began to raise 
above the foundation, the young manifested ther delight in 
tears of joy, whilst the ancients wept to see how far the 
outlines of the new edifice fell short of the old. The progress 
of the work suffered a temporary obstruction, through the 
intrigues of their enemies, and the caprice of Cambyses, 
the successor of Cyrus. But in the beginning of the reign 
of Darius, the decree of Cyrus in favor of the Jews, was 
ratified ; and that prince even contributed liberally towards 
the expense, and in the sixth year of his reign, the temple 
was completed and dedicated with great solemnity. 

2. Darius, during the remainder pf his reign, continued 
to manifest his favor for the Jews, and their privileges were 
confirmed by his son Xerxes. Their interest was still 
greater, with Artaxerxes, called Assuerus in the Scripture, 
through the influence of his queen, Esther, a Jewess, and 
also through the services of her uncle, Mordecai, who had 



124 JEWISH HISTORY. 

discovered and frustrated a conspiracy against the king's 
life. From Artaxerxes, Ezra obtained liberal donations, 
to be applied to the service of the temple ; and full power 
to govern the Jews, and Nehemiah was afterwards com- 
missioned to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and to reform 
many abuses among the people. Ezra and Nehemiah seem 
to have been tho two last governors of Judah, which prob- 
ably became subject to the governor of Syria, from whom 
the high-priest derived his authority. 

3. From this period, most of the calamities which befel 
the Jewish nation, must be ascribed to the men, who as- 
pired to the sacerdotal dignity, through motives of ambition 
and avarice, more than zeal for religion. For several cen- 
turies, the office of high-priest was the chief object of am- 
bition, among the leading men of the state. The candi- 
dates purchased the office from the Assyrian governors, and 
retained it by means of money. Hence they oppressed 
the people with taxes, that they might meet their pecuniary 
engagements, and the high-priest, Menelaus, sold some of 
the richest vessels belonging to the temple. 

4. About the year 328, A. C, Alexander the Great, hav- 
ing besieged Tyre, was greatly incensed against the Jews, 
because they had refused to supply his army with provi- 
sions, during the siege. After the taking of Tyre, he 
marched to Jerusalem with the intention of punishing the 
Jews for their disobedience to his orders. Juddica, the 
high-priest, was ordered in a dream to meet the threaten- 
ing conqueror, in his pontifical robes, at the head of all 
the priests, in their proper habits, and attended by the peo- 
ple, dressed in white garments. Alexander was struck 
with this religious pomp, and approaching the high-priest 
with the "deepest respect, embraced him with a kind of 
religious veneration. He told his attendants, who express- 
ed their surprise at this submissive behavior, that he did 
not pay this profound respect to the high-priest, but to the 
God whose minister he was. 

5. Alexander on his departure, granted to the Jews, the 
freedom of their country, laws and religion, and exempted 
them from paying tribute every seventh year; and during 
his whole reign, they enjoyed great tranquility ; but with 
him the prosperous condition of their country expired. Ju- 
dea was successively invaded and subdued by the Syrians 
and Egyptians, and the people reduced to bondage. The 
Jews kept the Sabbath so rigidly, that they would not, on 
that day, engage in battle nor defend themselves, although 



JEWISH HISTORY. 125 

attacked by an enemy. Ptolemy, king of Egypt, having 
invaded Judea, took advantage of this religious impediment. 
He entered Jerusalem on the Sabbath-day, without resist- 
ance, and carried away to Egypt, one hundred thousand 
captives. 

6. About the year 198, A. C, Antiochus the Great, king 
of Syria, after taking the city of Jerusalem, and plunder- 
ing the temple, sold 40,000 Jews to the neighboring na- 
tions, and established paganism through Judea. The sac- 
rifices ceased, and for a season, there scarcely existed the 
slightest external signs of religion. During the scene of 
desolation which stained the land of Judea with the blood 
of its best citizens, Mattathias, a man of the sacerdotal or- 
der, undertook the deliverance of his country. He retired 
into the wilderness with his five sons, surnamed the Mac- 
cabees, and was soon joined by a great number of the Jews, 
who wished to avoid idolatry and religious persecution. 
An army was shortly raised, sufficiently strong to face the 
enemy in the field. Mattathias, placing himself at the 
head of his forces, led them against the troops of Antio- 
chus, and forced them to retreat before him, and to fly for 
safety, beyond the boundaries of Judea. 

7. After the death of Mattathias, Judas Maccabees, his 
eldest son, was placed at the head of the army. The 
achievements of this distinguished man, the deliverance of 
his country from foreign oppression, his talents, bravery 
and patriotism, have ranked him among the most illustrious 
heroes of Greece and Rome. His patriotism was only 
surpassed by his zeal for religion. Having vanquished the 
enemies of his country, his first care was to repair the de- 
vastations they had caused. The temple was in a desolate 
condition, the altar and sanctuary profaned, the gates burn- 
ed and court overgrown with shrubs. Having appointed 
priests of unblemished character, for the performance of the 
sacrifices, he repaired the holy places, threw down the altar 
on which the idol of Jupiter stood, and having erected 
another, dedicated it with great joy and religious festivity. 
The sacred veil was again hung up, and the sacred vessels, 
golden candlesticks, and altar of perfumes, were again re- 
placed. Judas Maccabees having thus, by many signal 
victories, delivered his country from bondage and idolatry, 
was at last slain in battle, 157, A. C. 

8. The brothers of Judas, pursuing the advantage already 
gained, completely established the independence of their 
country, and the republican form of government, afterwards 



126 JEWISH HISTORY . 

changed to that of a monarchy. John Hyrcanus, the soil 
of Simon Maccabees, united in his person, the office of 
high-priest, and that of commander-in-chief of the army, 
and possessing all the abilities requisite for the military and 
pontifical offices, he vanquished the enemies of his coun- 
try, and firmly established bis authority. His sons as- 
sumed the title as well as the power of kings, and the suc- 
cession remained in his family for about 126 years. The 
unfortunate dissensions of this family, terminated ultimate- 
ly, in the conquest of Judea, by Pompey the Great, who 
took Jerusalem and subjugated the Jewish nation to the do- 
minion of the Romans, 59, A. C. 

9. After this event, the Jewish monarchy was re-estab- 
lished by the favor, and under the protection of the Ro- 
mans, who placed Herod the Great, son of Antipater, on 
the throne of David. This prince demolished the old tem- 
ple of Jerusalem, and rebuilt it in a very magnificent man- 
ner. He reigned with great splendor, but was cruel and 
despotic ; his public life exhibits a continued scene of bat- 
tles, tyranny, and violence. His reign is rendered memor- 
able, by the birth of our divine Saviour, Jesus Christ. 
When this remarkable event took place, the wise men, as 
the scripture calls them, from the east, came to Jerusalem 
to adore the new-born king of the Jews, and desired to 
know where he was to be found. Herod, aware that he 
had no other title to the crown of Judea, than that which 
the Romans had given him, was much alarmed at this in- 
quiry which was made about another king. He therefore, 
dismissed the wise men, with a strict injunction to bring 
him back an account of the child when they had found it, 
that he might go, as he pretended, to adore it. The wise 
men, having paid their adoration to the infant at the man- 
ger of Bethlehem, were admonished in their sleep, to re- 
turn by another way to their country. Herod, finding him- 
self thus deceived by the sages, with cruelty that would 
shock the most savage barbarian, gave orders that every 
male child, born at Bethlehem within the two last years, 
should be put to death. Herod died in the first year of the 
birth of Christ, or the fourth of the vulgar era. 

10. During the reign of Herod II., St. John, the Bap- 
tist, was beheaded, because he reproved the monarch for 
the crime of marrying his brother's wife; it was also dur- 
ing the same reign, that our Saviour's crucifixion, resurrec- 
tion, and ascension took place. In the reign of his son, 
Herod the Great, the Apostle, St. James, suffered martyr- 



JEWISH HISTORY, 127 

dom, and St. Peter was imprisoned ; but the unhappy mon- 
arch himself, died a miserable death, being devoured by 
worms. Before his son, Agrippa, who was the last king 
of Judea, St. Paul pleaded in defense of the gospel. From 
this period, the governors of Judea were appointed by the 
Roman emperors; in this condition it remained until the 
final extinction of the Jewish nation. 

1 1. The rapacity and cruelty of Florus, the last gover- 
nor of Judea, caused a rebellion of the Jews, in which 
150,000 persons are said to have perished, A. D. 66. The 
unhappy Jerusalem was now hastening to its downfall ; 
while the sanguinary and violent factions among the Jews 
themselves, contributed towards this event. In the reign 
of Vespasian, Titus, the Roman general, was sent into 
Judea to suppress the revolt of the Jews. He commenced 
the siege of the city about the festival of Easter, at which 
time, an immense multitude of people was shut up within 
the walls. With so much ardor did Titus conduct the op- 
erations of the siege, that the city was taken within the 
space of five months, and so completely demolished, that 
not a stone was left upon a stone, except a part of the west- 
ern wall, and three towers preserved for the Roman garri- 
son left in Judea. 

12. The last siege of Jerusalem, was attended with 
scenes of carnage, famine, disease and desperation, far 
more horrible than any to be met with in the annals of hu- 
man misery. During the calamitous progress of the siege, 
Titus displayed many instances of humanity towards the 
besieged ; and made every effort for the preservation of the 
city and temple, but in vain; and viewing the disasters that 
befell the nation, he confessed that he was only the instru- 
ment of divine vengeance. The magnificent temple of the 
Jews, perished with the general wreck of the nation, thus 
literally fulfilling the predictions of our Lord, concerning 
the utter destruction of Jerusalem. This event took place 
about the year 72, A. D. 

13. According to the most accurate calculation, about 
eleven hundred thousand Jews perished during the siege of 
their capital, and ninety-seven thousand who were made 
prisoners, were sold as slaves to different nations. Since 
that time, the descendants of those who survived the disso- 
lution of the Jewish nation, have been wandering from na- 
tion to nation, objects of contempt, rather than of commis- 
eration. In but few countries have they enjoyed the same 
privileges, as those among whom they were permitted to 
reside. 



128 JEWISH HISTORY. 

14. Antiquities. The country of the ancient Hebrews, 
was distinguished by several names, such as the land of 
Canaan, the Holy Land, Palestine, Judea, &c. ; and the 
people themselves were variously called, as the people of 
God, Israelites, and Jews. After the enterance of the Is- 
raelites into the land of Canaan, it was divided into twelve 
different portions, which were assigned to the twelve several 
tribes into which they were separated. 

15. Remains of Ancient Works. Among the ancient 
works of Palestine, Jacob's well ; the pools of Solomon, 
Gihon, and Bethesa, and sepulchral monuments, are the 
most remarkable. Jacob's well is highly venerated on ac- 
count of its great antiquity. It is hewn out of the solid 
rock, about 100 feet in depth, and nine in diameter, and is 
at present covered with a stone vault. 

The pools of Solomon, supposed to have been construct- 
ed by the order of that monarch, appear to have been a 
work of immense cost and labor. They are three in a 
row, so situated that the water of the uppermost may fall 
into the second, and from second to the third. They are 
of equal breadth, being about 90 paces each ; though they 
vary in length, the longest being 220 paces. The pools of 
Gihon and Bethesa, are similar works and may be ranked 
among the most stately ruins. The sepulchral monuments 
are to be found in various parts of the country. The most 
magnificent remains of this kind, are the royal sepulchres 
within the walls of Jerusalem ; they are all hewn out of 
the solid marble rock, and contain several spacious apart- 
ments. 

16. Cities. Of these, Jerusalem, the metropolis of the 
country, and the centre of the Jewish worship, was the 
most celebrated, and no place in the world recalls so many 
hallowed associations. The city was built on several hills, 
the largest of which was mount Zion. It was enlarged and 
embellished by David, Solomon, and other kings. On the 
east or lower city, was mount Moriah, on which stood the 
magnificent temple of Solomon. After the destruction of 
Jerusalem by Titus, a new city was built in the reign of 
Adrian, the Roman emperor, and called iElia Capitolia, but 
there was a considerable alteration in the site. Mount Zion, 
the principal quarter of the ancient city, was not comprised 
within the limits of the new one. It subsists at the present 
time in a deplorable condition, inhabited by Turks, Jews, 
and Christians. Gaza and Ascalon were the other two 
most noted cities. 



JEWISH HISTORY. 129 

17. Manners and Customs. The rite of circumcision 
has distinguished the Jewish people from the earliest period 
of their history. It was always accompanied with great 
feasting and other demonstrations of joy. At this time, the 
child was named in the presence of the company assembled, 
among whom bread and wine were distributed. 

Their diet, except on festivals, seems to have been very 
plain ; bread, water, and vinegar were in common use. 
Honey was esteemed a peculiar delicacy, and the milk of 
goats was considered excellent for food. 

Their amusements seem to have consisted chiefly in so- 
cial repasts, music, and dancing, which partook of a religi- 
ous character. Their mourning for the death of friends, 
was expressed by rending their garments, tearing their hair, 
heaping ashes upon their heads, wearing sackcloth, and ly- 
ing on the ground. From the pains they took to provide a 
place of burial for themselves and their descendants, it is 
evident that they considered it a heavy calamity to be deni- 
ed a burial, and a favor to be interred among their ances- 
tors. Their sepulchres were on their own land, and were 
often cut out of a rock. 

18. The language of the Jews was the Hebrew, the ge- 
nius of which is pure, primitive, and natural; and it is 
highly probable that they had the art of writing very early. 
The materials on which they first wrote, were plates of 
stone ; they afterwards used what was called rolls, which 
is supposed to be a kind of parchment. The arts in which 
they most excelled, were those of war, husbandry, poetry, 
and music. Their situation made them a warlike people, 
being surrounded by enemies. Their arms of defense were 
the shield, helmet, coat of mail, and breast-plate; their of- 
fensive weapons were the two-edged sword, javelin, sling - , 
and the bow and arrow. In poetry they peculiarly excel- 
led ; their inspired productions, as to native energy and 
beautv, are unrivalled. 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 



1. All the nations of antiquity, except the Jews, were 
heathens and idolaters. Their sj stem of religion was called 
Polytheism, as it acknowledged a plurality of gods ; and 
they worshipped their divinities by various representations, 
called idols. The first objects of adoration among the pa- 
gan nations, after they had lost the correct-knowledge of 
the true God, were the heavenly bodies. Hence we find 
that the names of the principal gods, correspond with the 
names of the chief planets; such as Saturn, Jupiter, Ve- 
nus, &c. Osiris and Isis, the principal deities among the 
Egyptia s, are supposed to have been the sun and moon. 
In the process of time, they built temples to the heavenly 
bodies, as being subordinate agents of the divine power, 
and by worshipping them, they supposed they would obtain 
the favor of the deity. From this they descended to the 
worship of objects on the earth, fas they were thought to 
represent the stars or the deity, thus idolatry arose shortly 
after the deludge. 

2. In the course of time, adoration was bestowed on 
those objects, which were thought to confer peculiar bene- 
fits on man. Thus the Egyptians, regarded the Nile as 
sacred, because by its inundations it fertilized the earth. 
Again, great heroes and persons, who during their lives, 
had been benefactors to the human race, were deiried after 
their death. From these, they descended to the worship 
of the most degrading oljects, and paid divine honors to 
beasts, birds, insects, and even to vegetables, such as leeks 
and onions; moreover, temples were dedicated to evil de- 
mons and the most debasing passions. 

3. The Babylonians, adored tl e heavenly bodies, and 
among them Jupiter was worshipped, under the name of 
Be I us, to whom n agnificcnt temples were erected at Baby- 
lon. The Canaanitrs and Syrians, wi shipped Baal, Trjn- 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 131 

muz, Magog, and Astarte. Moloch was the Saturn of the 
Phoenicians and Carihagenians, to whom human victims, 
particularly children, were immolated. Baal-peor, was the 
idol of the Moabites ; his rights were degrading and cruel. 
Dagon was the chief god of the Philistine ; his figure was 
a compound of a man and a fish. Among the Celts, the 
sacred rights were performed, in groves dedicated to their 
gods, to whom human victims were frequently offered: 
colossal images of wicker-work, were filled with human 
criminals and consumed by fire. 

4. According to the pagan theology, there were twelve 
chief deities engaged in the creation and government of the 
universe. Agreeable to this theory, Jupiter, Neptune, and 
Vulcan, fabricated the world ; Cere*, Juno, and Diana, ani- 
mated it; Mercury, Venus, and Apollo, harmonized it; 
and lastly, Vesta, Minerva, and Mars, presided over it with 
a guardian power; and these twelve were called the celes- 
tial deities. 

Jupiter, who was represented as supreme, and styled the 
father of the gods and men, was the son of Saturn and Cy- 
bele, and was born on mount Ida in Crete. He deposed 
his father and divided the world between himself and his 
two brothers, Neptune and Pluto. Neptune had the juris- 
diction over the sea, and Pluto that of infernal regions ; but 
the sovereignty of heaven and earth he reserved to himself.. 
One of his chief exploits was the conquest of the Titans 
or giants, who are said to have placed several mountains on 
each other, in order to scale the heavens. He is generally 
represented as a majestic personage, seated upon a "throne, 
with a sceptre in one hand and thunderbolts in the other. 
The heavens tremble at his nod, and he governed all things 
except the Fates. 

5. Apollo was the son of Jupiter and Latona, and was 
born on the island of Delos. He presided over music, 
medicine, poetry, the fine arts, and archery. For his offense 
in killing the Cyclops, he was banished from heaven, and 
obliged to hire himself as a shepherd to Admetxs, king of 
Thessaly, in which employment he remained for nine years. 
His exploits are represented as extraordinary: among others 
he caused Midas to receive a pair of ass' ears for preferring 
Pan's music to his ; he turned into a violet, the beautiful 
boy Hyacinth, whom he accidentally killed; and changed 
Daphne into a laurel. 

6. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He was the 
god of war and the patron of all that is cruel and furious ; 



132 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

the horse, the wolf, the magpie and vulture, were offered 
to him. During the Trojan war, Mars, was wounded by 
Diomedes, and retreating to heaven, he complained to Ju- 
piter that Minerva had directed the weapon of his antagon- 
ist. He is represented as an old man, armed and standing 
in a chariot drawn by two horses, called fright and terror: 
his sister Bellona, was his charioteer; Discord, went hefore 
him in a tattered garment with a torch, Anger and Clamor 
followed. 

7. Mercury, the son of Jupiter and Maia, was the mes- 
senger of the gods, and the patron of travellers, shepherds, 
orators, merchants, thieves and dishonest persons. He 
was doubtless some enlightened person, in a remote age, 
who, on account of his actions and services, was worship- 
ped after his death. He seems to have been the first who 
taught the arts of civilization. 

Vulcan, the son of Jupiter and Juno, was the god of 
fire, and the patron of those who wrought in the metallic 
arts. He was kicked out of heaven by Jupiter, for attempt- 
ing to deliver his mother from a chain by which she was 
suspended. He continued to descend for nine successive 
days and nights, and at length fell upon the isle of Lemnos, 
but was crippled by the fall. He was the artificer of hea- 
ven, and forged the thunderbolts of Jupiter, also the arms 
of the gods. 

8. Juno, styled the queen of heaven, was both the sister 
and wife of Jupiter. In her character, she was haughty, 
jealous, and inexorable. In her figure, she was lofty, grace- 
ful and majestic; Iris, displaying the rich colors of the 
rainbow, was her usual attendant. 

Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, was the most accom- 
plished of all the goddesses, and the only divinity that 
seems equal to Jupiter. She is said to have instructed man 
in the arts of ship-building, navigation, spinning, and weav- 
ing. Her worship was universally established, but at Athens 
it claimed particular attention. The owl was sacred to her. 

Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, was the daughter 
of Jupiter and Dione, or as some say, she sprung from the 
foam of the sea. Her worship was licentious in a high 
degree, and attended with most disgraceful ceremonies. 

Diana was the queen of the woods, and the goddess of 
hunting. She devoted herself to perpetual celibacy, and 
was attended by eighty nymphs. The poppy wa,s sacred 
to her. 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 133 

9. Ceres, the daughter of Saturn and Cybele, was the 
goddess of corn and harvest, and the first who taught the 
cultivation of the earth. The Eleusinian mysteries were 
celebrated in her honor. 

Vesta was the goddess of fire, and the guardian of 
houses. She was represented in a long flowing robe, a 
veil on her head, a lamp in one hand, and a javelin in the 
other. 

10. Neptune, the brother of Jupiter, was the second in 
rank among the gods, and reigned over the sea. He is 
represented seated on a chariot drawn by dolphins and sea 
horses ; in his hand he holds a trident or sceptre, with three 
prongs. Oceanus, a sea god, was called the father of rivers. 
Triton, also a marine deity, was the son of Neptune and 
Amphitrite; he was his father's companion and trumpeter. 
Nereus, a sea god, the son of Oceanus, was the father of 
fifty daughters, who were called Nereides. Proteus, the 
son of Oceanus, could foretell future events, and change 
himself into any shape. 

11. The infernal deities were, Pluto and his consort 
Proserpine, Pintus, Charon, the Furies, Fates, and the 
three judges, Minos, iEacus, and Rhadamantus. Pluto, 
who exercised dominion over the infernal regions, was the 
brother of Jupiter. The goddesses all refusing to marry 
him, on account of his deformity and gloomy disposition, 
he seized upon Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, in Sici- 
ly, opened a passage through the earth, and carried her to 
his residence ; and having married her, made her queen of 
hell. There were no temples raised to his honor. Pin- 
tus, an infernal deity, was the god of riches ; he was lame, 
blind, injudicious, and timorous. 

12. Charon was the ferryman, who conducted the ghosts 
across the river Lethe, on their way to Philo's regions. 
He is represented as an old man, with white hair, a long 
beard, and garments deformed with filth, and remarkable 
for the harshness of his speech, and ill temper. None 
could enter Charon's boat if they had not received a regu- 
lar burial : without this, they were supposed to wander a 
hundred years amidst the mud and slime of the shore. — 
Each ghost paid a small brass coin for his fare. 

13. The Furies were three in number, namely : Alecto, 
Tisiphone and Megara. They had the faces of women, 
but their looks were full of terror, they held lighted torches 
in their hands, and snakes lashed their necks and shoulders. 
Their offices was to punish the crimes of wicked men, and 
to torment the consciences of secret offenders. 



134 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

The Fates were three daughters of Jupiter and Themis. 
Their names were, Chotho, Laehesis, and Atropos. They 
decided on the fortunes of mankind; Chotho drew the 
thread of life ; Laehesis turned the wheel, and Atropos 
cut it with her scissors. The duty of the three judges, 
was to assign the various punishments of the wicked, adap- 
ted to their crimes ; and to place the good in the delightful 
realms of Elysium. 

14. There were many other divinities of various char- 
acters, such as Bacchus, Cupid, the Muses, the Graces, 
&c. Bacchus, the son of Jupiter and Semele, was the god 
of wine. His festivals were celebrated by persons of both 
sexes, who dressed themselves in skins, and ran shouting 
through the hills and country places: these solemnities 
were attended with the most disgusting scenes of intoxi- 
cation and debauchery. The fir, the fig tree, ivy and vine 
were sacred to him. 

Cupid, representing the passion of love, was a beautiful 
winged boy ; often with a bandage over his eyes, also with 
a bow and arrow in his hand, with which to wound the 
hearts of mortals. 

The Muses were nine in number, namely : Calliope, 
who presided over eloquence, and heroic or epic poetry ; 
Clio, presided over history ; Erato was the Muse of elegi- 
ac and lyric poetry; Euterpe presided over music; Mel- 
pomene was the inventress and muse of tragedy; Poly- 
hymnia was the muse of singing and rhetoric ; Terpsichore 
presided over dancing ; Thalia, the muse of pastoral and 
comic poetry ; and Urania, who presided over hymns and 
sacred subjects ; and also the muse of astronomy. 

15. The Graces were the three daughters of Bacchus 
and Venus ; they were supposed to give to beauty all its 
charms of attraction. Besides these were several rural de- 
ities ; such as Fan, the god of shepherds and hunters; 
Sylvanus, who presided over the words ; Priapus, the god 
of the gardens ; Terminus, who was considered as watch- 
ing over the boundaries of land ; and others. 

The Sirens were three fabulous persons, who are said 
to have had the faces of women, and the lower parts of 
their bodies like a fish. They had such melodious voices, 
that mariners were often allured and destroyed by them. 
The Gorgons were three sisters, who are said to have had 
the power of transforming those into stones, who looked 
upon them. The Harpies were winged monsters, which 
had the face of a woman, the body and wings of a vulture, 
claws on the hands and feet, and the ears of a bear. 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 135 

1G. The objects of worship among the ancient nations, 
particularly among the Greeks and Romans, are said to 
have amounted to thirty thousand. To these, temples were 
erected, festivals instituted, games celebrated, and sacrifices 
offered, with a grea'er or less degree of pomp, according to 
the degree of estimation in which the deity was held. The 
m )3t celebrated temples of antiquity, were those of Diana, 
at Ephesus, of A polio, in the city of Miletus, of Ceres 
and Proserpine, at Eleusis, and that of Jupiter Olympus, 
and the Parthenon of Minerva, at Athens. The famous 
temple of Diana, at Ephesus, one of the seven wonders of 
the world, was completed 220 years after its foundation. 
It was 425 feet in length and 200 in breadth ; the roof was 
supported by 127 columns, 63 iVset high, placed there by 
so many kings. This temple was burnt on the night that 
Alexander the Great was born, by Erostratus, who alleged 
that he perpetrated the deed, merely for the purpose of im- 
mortalizing his name in destroying so magnificent a building, 

17. Oracles were consulted, particularly by the Greeks 
and Roman-, on all important occasions, and their determi- 
nations were held sacred and inviolable. The most cele- 
brated oracles were those of Apollo, at Delphi and Delos ; 
the orades of Jupiter, at Dod ma, and that of Trophonius; 
where future events were made known to those who sought 
to know the will of the gods. The responses were gener- 
ally delivered by a priestess, who was supposed to be di- 
vinely inspired ; but usually in verse and contained in very 
ambiguous language, so thai one answer would agree with 
various and sometimes opposite event*. It must, however, 
be confessed that sometimes the answers of the oracles 
were subs;antia!ly correct, a fact which is proved by many 
passages in ancient history ; but it is a question among the 
learned, whether the answers of the oracles should be as- 
cribed to the operations of demons, or only to the impos- 
ture of men. The best established opinion is, that demons 
were the real agents in the oracles, although we find many 
instances in Grecian history, where the Delphic priestess 
suffered herself to be corrupted by presents, and gave an 
answer to suit the will or to gratify the ptssions or inclina- 
tion of ihose who came to consult her. 

18 There is one fact, however, deserving of notice, 
namely, that the responses of the oracles ceased when 
Christianity began to be preached ; n>t on a sudden, but in 
proportion as its salutary doctrines became known to man- 
kind. TertuUi in, in one of iiis apologies, challenges the 



136 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

pagans to make the experiment, and consents that a Chris- 
tian should be put to death, if he did not oblige ihe oracles 
to confess themselves devils. Lactantius informs us that 
every Christian could silence the oracles only by making 
the sign of the cross. When Julian, the apostate, went to 
Daphne, near Antioch, to consult Apollo, the god, notwith- 
standing all the sacrifices offered to him, cominued mute, 
and only recovered his speech to answer those who inquir- 
ed the cause of his silence, and ascribed it to the in'.erment 
of certain Christian bodies in the neighborhood. 

19. The ancients generally inculcated the belief in a fu- 
ture state of existence, believing that the virtuous would 
be happy in Elysium or Paradise, and that the wicked 
would be miserable in Tartarus, or hell. Of hell, they 
drew the most gloomy and horrific picture, where men, 
who had been remarkable for their crimes, while on earth, 
were punished with a variety of tortures. On the contra- 
ry, the prospect of Elysium was described as beautiful and 
inviting in the highest degree. In that delightful region, 
there was no inclement weather, but mild winds constantly 
blew from the ocean, to refresh the inhabitants, who lived 
without care or anxiety; the sky was perpetually serene, 
and the fertile earth produced, twice a year, delicious fruit 
in abundance. 



MODERN HISTORY. 



Various periods have been adopted by different histori- 
ans, for the commencement of Modern History. Some 
have adopted the establishment of the Western Empire, 
under Charlemagne, A. D. 'dOO, others again, have taken 
the downfall of the Western Empire of the Romans, A. D. 
478, while the majority assume the commencement of the 
Christian era. That portion of Modern History, styled 
the Middle A^es, will claim our first attention. 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 

1. The period intervening between the subversion of 
the Western Empire of the Romans, to the downfall of the 
Eastern Empire, has been usually denominated the Middle 
Ages,* and by some writers, the Dark A^es. The great 
majority of writers, represent Europe during those ages, 
as sunk in ignoranpe and barbarism. How far they are 
correct in their estimate, I leave to the reader to judge, af- 
ter giving a summary view of these ages, separately. 

2. The Sixth Age. During- the early part of the pre- 
ceding century, the Roman Empire of the West, had been 
rapidly on the decline, until its final overthrow, in the year 
476. The inundation of the northern hoards of Goths, 
Vandals, and Huns, under Alaric, Attda, and other leaders, 
had swept from the face of Italy, almost every trace of civ- 
ilization, and planted on its once fertile plains, a wild and 
savage race of barbarians. Under the oppressive reign of 
Amastasius in the East, insurrections prevailed in the prov- 

* Some historians regard only the ninth, tenth, and eleventh cen- 
turies, as the Middle Ages. 
6* 



138 MIDDLE AGES. 

inces, and sedition at Constantinople itself. The empire 
was assailed from without, by the Persians, Bulgarians, 
Arabians, and the barbarous tribes from the north. Under 
his successors, Justin, and Justinian, an uninterrupted se- 
ries of war continued to rage in different p irts of the em- 
pire. Italy and the West had been severed from it towards 
the close of the preceding century. After a long and san- 
guinary contest, during which, Rome was repeatedly taken 
and retaken by the contending powers, Italy was again 
reconquered by Belisarius and Narses, the generals of Jus- 
tinian. 

3. In Gaul, the Burgundians, Francs, and Visgoths, 
were almost incessantly at war. In Africa and in Spain, 
the Goths and Vandals were constantly engaged in civil 
broils with each other, or at war with the Romans; and 
England, during the whole of this century, struggled for 
its liberty with the Saxons, Jutes, and Angles, who event- 
ually established their empire in the island, called the Hep- 
tarchy. In this violent and general confusion that prevail- 
ed throughout Christendom, we may easily infer what must 
have been the decay of learning and science. The rude 
barbarians, who had subjugated nations more polished than 
themselves, were indebted only to their courage, for suc- 
cess, and valued no other arts, than those of managing with 
effect, the buckler and the sword; literature and polite arts, 
they esteemed below the notice of warriors, who had sub- 
dued the kingdoms of the West. Whatever of learning 
survived the wreck of barbarian devastation, found an asy- 
lum in the monastic institutions, and in those towns where 
a bishop held his residence, at which a school of literature 
and theology was usually established. 

4. If amidst the ignorance which almost universally pre- 
vailed, owing to the causes above mentioned, we find cer- 
tain practices of a superstitious nature, it is not a matter of 
surprise. Some were persuaded that providence would 
uo.t suffer perjury, falsehood, or any crime against justice, 
to go unpunished, and that he would never permit the in- 
nocent to perish, in whatever circumstances they might be 
placed. This belief, gave rise to all those various kinds of 
ordeals, — by water, by fire, single combat and the like. 
Among the writers of the sixth century, the following 
names are eminently distinguished : St, Gregory the Great, 
bishop of Rome; St. Caesarius, archbishop of Aries; Ev's- 
grius the Syrian, an ecclesiastical historian ; St. Fulgentius, 
an African bishop; St. Gregory of Tours, who, in ten 



MIDDLE AGES. 13!) 

books, wrote the history of the Francs; and also St. John 
Climacus. 

5. The Seventh Age. At the commencement of this 
century, Phocas occupied the throne at Constantinople, a 
tyrant, possessed of almost, every vice that can inflict dis- 
grace on humanity, without a redeeming virtue. While he 
amused himself with the oppression of fiis subjects, the 
barbarians overrun the provinres of the empire, and filled 
them with carnage and desolation. Under the reign of 
Heraclius, his successor, the state was delivered from ex- 
ternal foes; lie wrested the provinces from the hands of 
the Persians, and spread the terror of his arms over the 
East. But his vast dominions had been depopulated by 
ihe continual wars, which the empire had to sustain against 
the ravages of the barbarians, anil by the absolute and ar- 
bitrary power of cruel and avaricious governors, while that 
portion of his subjects, which still remained, groaned un- 
der the weight of oppression. 

G. Such was the state of tilings, when Mahometanism 
rose, and swept like an impetuous torrent, over the coun- 
tries of the East, bearing down before it, every trace of 
civilization, and every monument of art. As the conquer- 
ors of the West had formerly esteemed no other arts, than 
those of arms, so the new race of warriors in the East, 
equally estranged to the advantages -which science bestow, 
in the first transports of success, destroyed every trace of 
li erature and every vestige of art. Such was the rapidity 
of their conquest*, that before the end of this century, they 
had established their dominion over Persia, Syria, Asia- 
Minor, Arabia, and Egypt. After the taking of Alexan- 
dria, the celebrated Library of that city, containing from 
five to seven hundred thousand volumes, was consigned to 
the flames 

7. The flame of war still continued to rage on the plains 
of Italy, where the restless Lombards, resisted every ef- 
fort of the Eastern emperors, to re establish their authori- 
ty. France was portioned out into provinces, nominally 
governed by kings, who abandoned themselves to the pur- 
Suit of pleasure, and indulged in effeminacy and sloth, and 
left the adm : nistration of the government to a minister, 
styled the Mayor of the palace. Spain was in a state of 
anarchy and civil broils ; no less than fourteen kings reign- 
ed in this country during this century, and of this number, 
one half was dethroned, or fell by the hand of some un* 
principled usurper. 



140 MIDDLE AGES. 

The general state of literature and polite art?, continued 
1o decline during this century. While religious fanaticism 
in t lie East, had absorbed all the faculties of the human 
mind, in the West, continual and sanguinary wars, had left 
but little leisure for the cultivation of science. 

8. The Eighth Ace. The empire of the caliphs con- 
tinued to spread, and by the beginning of this century, it 
extended from Canton, in China, to the southern extremi- 
ty of Spain. The emperors of Constantinople, during this 
period, without attending to the disorders of the state, la- 
bored industriously, either to enforce some erroneous doc- 
trine, regarding faith, or more laudably to restore tranquili- 
ty to the church. Philippicus was scarcely seated on the 
throne, when he turned his whole attention toward the estab- 
lishment of Monotheism. Leo, the Isaurian, and Constan- 
tine, his successor, were equally industrious in prohibiting 
the veneration paid to sacred images in the churches, while 
the empress Irene, zealously labored to re-establish it. 
The edicts of Leo, against sacred images, caused not only 
commotion in the East, but ako produced insurrections in 
Italy, which the Lombards converted to their own advan- 
tage. 

9. Under their king, Astolphus, they possessed them- 
selves of the exarchate of Ravena, which until this period, 
had remained under the dominion of the Eastern emperors, 

,antl subsequently undertook the conquest of Rome. When 
the imperial city was reduced to the last extremity, pope 
Sachry applied for aid to Pepin, the son of Charles Mar- 
tel. That enterprising prince, readily responded to the 
caii; hastened to Italy, delivered Rome and its territories 
frorfi the power of the Lombards, and with a noble gener- 
osity, bestowed the territory, thus acquired by his arms, 
on the sovereign Pontiff, and raised ihe head of the Chris* 
tian church to the title of temporal prince. 

10. Literature at the early part of this century, was still 
in the utmost depression ; but the name which had been 
almost extinguished, began once more to revive in the east. 
At the birth of Mahometanism, the Mussulmen declared 
war indiscriminately against all who refuged to embrace 
their superstitions, and death was the usual portion of the 
vanquished. But after the first transports of their enthusi- 
asm had subsided, they mitigated the cruelty of this impol- 
itic measure, antl for fear of changing their conquered ter- 
ritories, into one vast wilderness of desolation, they grant- 
ed a kind of toleration of all religions, with the exception 



MIDDLE AGES. Ill 

of gross idolatry. This indulgence caused many who had 
not lost ail taste for the arts and sciences, to settle in the 
dominion of the caliphs. During the reign of Ommiades, 
and his immediate successor Alinanzor, every encourage- 
ment was given to letters and learned men. 

Thus while the emperors of Constantinople, were wholly 
employed in compelling their subjects to adopt their own 
respective innovations in religion, the Saracen caliphs were 
endeavoring to diffuse a taste for science throughout their 
dominions. 

11. In France, the arts and sciences, which had taken 
refuge in the monasteries, were during the early part of 
this century, banished from these sacred asylums. The 
continued hostilities in which the country was involved, 
filled every place with tumult arid devastation. Ecrlesias- 
tical property was distributed among favorite chieftains, 
who instead of providing for the subsistence of a competent 
number of clergy to serve the churches, filled the monas- 
teries with their soldiery ; while the monks and clerical 
men, thus compelled to live with the military, gradually 
imbibed their spirit. Ignorance and vice, as a natural con- 
sequence, became almost general, no! only in France, but 
also throughout ihe continent of Europe, towards the mid- 
dle of this century ; Ireland and England, were almost ex- 
clusively, the seats of learning during this period. 

12. Fortunately, for the cau^e of literature, Charlemagne 
at this time, was called to fill the throne of France. This 
illustrious prince, formed the noble design of removing the 
barriers which prevented the diffusion of knowledge, and 
of furnishing his subjects with the means of instruction. 
He established schools in all the principal cities and towns, 
throughout his vast dominions, for the gratuitous education 
of children and the ignorant; lie exhorted the bishops and 
abbots, again to establish schools and universities, in their 
respective camedrals and abbeys, for the laudable purpose 
of teaching the literal arts and sciences; and invited into 
France, the most celebrated scholars of the age; such as 
Alcuin, of York, Clement, and others, who were employed 
with considerable success, in the literary regeneration of 
Europe. 

13. The ninth Age. The Saracen caliphs continued 
to patronize learning, particularly the science of astronomy. 
This produced a great number of proficients in that beauti- 
ful and eminently useful branch of knowledge. Many also 
applied themselves to the study of judicial astrology, while 



142 MIDDLE AGES. 

others distinguished themselves in various other depart- 
ments of literature. On the contrary, under the Greek 
emperors, the liberal arts were much neglected and des- 
pised. Leo, die Isaurian, had destroyed every thing favor- 
able to literature, and learned men were consigned to obliv- 
ion and contempt. 

14. However, towards the middle of tlrs century, we 
find a taste for literature manifest itself again among the 
Greeks. It was owing to the efforts of Anion, the Saracen 
caliph, to attract Leo, the philosopher, to his court, that 
the emperor Theophihis discovered the treasure he pos- 
sessed in that great man. He encouraged his talents, and 
intrusted him with the charge of the public instruction. 
Bardes, who governed under the emperor Michael, under- 
took, willi the aid of Phoius, to revive learning in the 
Eastern empire, by establishing professors of the various 
sciences and poli.e arts, and attaching to their functions, 
honorary privileges and pecuniary compensations. 

15. In the West, sacred and profane learning continued 
to flourish in the numerous schools established by Charle- 
magne, until the dreadful disorders of succeeding re-gns, 
partially banished the light of science from the kingdom. 
After the death of that illustrious monarch, his vast domin- 
ions were inherited by Louis the Mild, who divided them 
between his three sons, who s em to have inherited none 
of the noble qualities of their father. They were continu- 
ally engaged in hostilities with each other, while their king- 
doms were rent with civil discords, and their provinces 
were inundated on every side, by the irruption of the Danes, 
Normans and Saracens. 

16. Amidst the evils that ensued, we are not surprised 
that ignorance again prevailed, particularly among the no- 
bles, who, following exclusively the profession of arms, 
had but little time to attend to literary pursuits, and even 
boasted of their want of knowledge. Hence we find that 
many of the deeds and legal documents of thi* period, ter- 
minated in the following words: "And the aforesaid lord 
has declared that he did not know how to sign his name, 
owing to his being a nobleman." But while literature was 
nesr.lec.ted on the part of the nobility, the most strenuous 
efforts were made to keep alive the sacred flame of science, 
and to diffuse instruction among the people, by the clergy 
and prelates of the church. By a reference to the decrees 
of the councils, during this period, it will be seen that the 
ecclesiastics were unremitting in their zeal for the extension 



MIDDLE ACES. 143 

of knowledge. In the council of Toul, held in 859, prim -cs 
and bishops are earnestly recommended to establish public 
schools, lor the purpose of teaching sacred science and po- 
lite literature. In all the monasteries and episcopal houses, 
schools were established, in which a relish lor study and 
literary acquirements were carefully preserved. Besides 
the study of the sacred scripture, the students in there in- 
'stitutions were taught, what was termed the seven liberal 
arts ; namely, grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geome- 
try, astronomy and music. 

17. In England, the incursions of the Danes, and the 
ravages of civil war, had erased almost every monument of 
an, and banished Irom the land every trace of learning ; the 
monasteries were burned, the monks murdered or dispersed, 
the libraries and schools destroyed ; ignorance and vice 
necessarily ensued. Happy for the island, at this moment 
of its greatest depression, Alfred the Great, was called to 
the throne. Having delivered his country from the do- 
minion of the Danes, and driven the barbarous invaders 
from his shores, he turned his whole attention towards re- 
pairing the evils, which their ravages had caused. 

18. To effect this object, he established throughout his 
dominions schools, in which were taught all the useful 
branches; repaired the University of Oxford, invited from 
foreign countries, men eminent for their learning, encour- 
aged architecture, and laid the foundation of the British 
navy, which for so many centuries after, maintained die 
empire of the sea. To this illustrious prince. England is 
indebted for many of the valuable laws, which at present, 
form the fairest feature in her constitution. 

Although this age was not productive of many eminent 
scholars, still it has left behind it a few names, that would 
do honor to literature even at this day. Lupus, Abbot, of 
Ferrieres, a writer of this century, is admitted by all im- 
partial critics, to have been a man of profound erudition ; 
and few ages can boast of a more distinguished scholar, 
than Alfred the Great, of England. 

19. The tenth Age. The Greek empire, during this 
ago, was distracted by a seri s of revolts and unnatural con- 
spiracies. The emperor, Romanus, was dethroned by his 
son Constantine ; Constantine in his torn, was deprived <f 
his crown and life, by his own ungrateful son, who at. the 
instigation of his wife, administered a cup of poison to his 
royal father. The parricide did not long enjoy the fruits of 
his impiety. The army declared their general, Nicepho- 



144 MIDDLE AGES. 

rus, emperor, who after a short reign, was carried off by 
the hand of conspiracy, in order to made room for Zimis- 
ces. This last emperor fell a victim to ihe treachery of his 
chief minister, Basil, who, dreading the punishment which 
his crimes had merited, contrived live death of his sover- 
eign. 

20. During these revolutions of the state, literature was 
not entirely neglected ; some o!' the emperors gave consid- 
erable encouragement to science, and invited from other 
countries, men of talents to teach at Constantinople. We 
do not, however, find that the Greek empire, during the 
tenth century, produced any distinguished writers. Learn- 
ing was still patronized by the Saracen caliphs and by the 
sultans, who had usurped a great part of their authority. 
Many of their learned men, were employed in translating 
into the Arabic tongue, the writings of the ancient philoso- 
phers; while others applied themselves, with much dili- 
gence to the study of the translations, already set forth in 
the preceding age. 

21. Italy, during this centurv, was greatly distracted by 
civil dissension, and finally re-united to the Germanic em- 
pire by Otho I. France was exposed to the incursions of 
the Normans, in whose favor Charles the Simple, ceded a 
part of Neustria, which from them was called Normandy. 
Tumult and disorder continued to convulse the state, until 
Hugh Capet was raised to the throne. The feudal system 
duringjhis period, had risen to its greatest power. During 
the preceding century, the vassals of the crown had been 
gradually increasing in power, so that at the present period, 
we find them possessed of almost unlimited authority. 
Each nobleman had his fortress and his castle, situated on 
some commanding eminence, which overlooked the sur- 
rounding country. Here, secure from violence, he op- 
pressed the people, laid all travellers and merchants under 
contributions, and imposed upon them arbitrary tolls by 
way of tribute, and not unfrequently, set at defiance the 
authority of his sovereign. 

22. In Germany, the same state of things prevailed; the 
great continually in arms against each other, or at war with 
their sovereign. Nor was England more favored than the 
nations on the continent; it was either harrassed by new 
incursions of the Danes, or implicated in domestic feuds. 
The monasteries during these evil times, were almost the 
only asylums of learning. Here in the silence of the clois- 
ter, aloof from the turmoil of the camp, the peaceful monlis 



MIDDLE AGES. 145 

continued to cultivate a taste for science and classical litera- 
ture. This century produced several men eminent for their 
talents; among these St. Brun, archbishop of Cologne, and 
St. Dunstan, in Enyland, were particularly distinguished. 

23. The eleventh Age. In the Eastern empire, dur- 
ing the greater part of this century, treachery, poison and 
parricide, were the usual means employed, in the advance- 
ment or deposition of an emperor. Hence we may easily 
form an idea of the disorders of the government, and the 
deplorable condition of the people, who were moreover, 
daily exposed to the incursions of the Bulgarians, Saracens 
and Turks. The arts and sciences were totally neglected, 
until towards the middle of the century, when the study of 
letters began again to revive. Grammar and philosophy 
Avere cultivated with much care; although the philosophy 
consisted chiefly in forming syllogisms, and deducing so- 
phistical conclusions ; an exercise calculated rather to con- 
tract, than improve the mental faculties. 

24. Literature continued to meet with patronage among 
the Saracens, who, after subjecting Persia, Syria and Pal- 
estine, granted protection to learned men, and founded sev- 
eral academies. The extraordinary power exercised by the 
sovereign Pontiff, even over temporal princes dining this 
and several succeeding centuries, is no doubt a matter of 
surprise to the reader at the present day ; of this subject I 
will speak more at large under the head of Italy ; suffice it 
to say at present, that this power, invested in the pope, al- 
though it may appear derogatory to the rights of princes, 
had nevertheless, a salutary influence in correcting the 
abuses of the times, and of restraining the lawless passions 
of sovereigns. Fewer acts of violence were committed, 
the churches and monasteries were more respected, order 
and discipline better observed ; the sciem-es were cultivated 
in peace ; public academies were opened for all who wished 
to improve ; the schools were crowded with students, full 
of noble emulation which diffused itself through all ranks 
and conditions of life. 

25. During the eleventh century, the me'hod of Alcuin 
was adopted in the schools, under the name of Trivium 
and Quadrivium. The Trivium included grammar, logic 
and dialectics; while arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and 
music constituted the Quadrivium. But as the number of 
scholars multiplied, the works of Aristotle and Avicennes, 
with the categories attributed to St. Augustin, were very 
generally studied in the West. The most remarkable event 



146 MIDDLE AGES. 

towards., the close of this century, was the commencement 
of the crusades or sacred wars undertaken for the recovery 
of Palestine from the dominion of the Turks. A. I). 1098. 
This century wiih the latter part of the preceding, was dis- 
tinguished f <r several important and useful inventions. (See 
chronological table.) 

28. The twelfth Age. At the commencement of this 
century, anarchy and confusion reigned in the East. The 
new slates which the Christians had cstabl shed in Pales- 
tine, were subjects of continual war; the sultans were con- 
stantly in the field, to arrest the progress of the cru-aders. 
The emperors of Constantinople, unable to repe'i the in- 
vasion of the Saracens, and jealous of the succ fs of the 
crusaders, tampered with both, without being- able to take 
advantage, either of their victories or defeats. 

The state of literature, notwithstanding the unfavorable 
aspect of things, was gradually improving. In the midst 
of the confusmn of war, the caliphs and sultans being gen- 
erally men of learning, paid much attention to the advance- 
ment of science. The schools and academies established 
throughout the Mussulman empire were highly flourishing. 

27. The Greeks were somewhat improved from their 
frequent intercourse with the Saracens. The emulation 
which had been excited in the West, during the preceding 
century, the patronage of princes, combined with the pro- 
pagation of the religious orders of Citeaux, Ctuni, and the 
Carthusians, greatly multiplied the number of schools and 
academies; every abbey and almost every monastery, was 
an institution for the diffusion of literary knowledge. The 
art of writing was cultivated with greater application and 
success during this than at any former period ; and the 
manuscripts which have descended to the present time, are 
standing monuments of the perfection to which that art was 
carried, during the twelith and following centuries. The 
University of Padua, and that of Paris, was founded about 
the year 1180. The writers of this age, most deserving 
of notice, are St. Bernard, Peter, abbot of Cluui, Peter, of 
Blois, and Pope Innocent III. 

28. The thirteenth Age. The East, at the beginning 
of this century, was occupied by the Moguls, Sarace is, and 
Turks, among whom, an almost uninterrupted series of 
wars continued to rage. Gengiskan, and his successors, 
reduced a considerable portion of the Saracen and Turkish 
empires; while the princes of the West, took Constanti- 
nople and established there a Latin emperor, whose succes- 



MIDDLE AGES. 117 

sors swayed the Greek sceptre, until the midd!e of this age. 
Tie Greek emperors after their restoration, were continu- 
ally harrassed by the Turks, who finally reduced a consid- 
erable portion of the Grecian provinces. 

29. In the West, Germany was convulsed by the factions 
of competitors for the empire. Otho was at length ac- 
knowledged by the people, and crowned by Pope Innocent 
III., after a solemn promise to protect the patrimony of 
th? pontiff. The emperor however on account of some dis- 
agreement with the Romans, proceeded 10 avenge himself 
by invading and ravaging the territories of the church. 
Upon this he was deposed by a council assembled by the 
pope, while the princes of Germany, elected Frederick 
Ii. in his place. Otho was not disposed to yield without a 
contest, and thus involved the empire in all the horrors of 
civil war. Frederick was finally successful, the death of 
his rival left him in quiet possession of the throne. 

30. France was either involved in hostilities with Eng- 
land, or engaged in a calamitous warfare with the Albigin- 
ses, who had desolated her southern provinces. Conse- 
quently the West was still the theatre of discord and civil 
dissension. Science was still patronized by the Moguls, 
and learning continued to flourish throughout their vast em- 
pire ; while on the other hand, the conquests of the Turks 
had greatly tended to retard it, within the limits of their 
jurisdiction. Some few men of learning flourished among 
the Greeks, but most of their efforts were made in vain at- 
tempts to justify their schism, and to refute the writings of 
the Latin theologians. In the West, science which had 
been hitherto chiefly confined to the abbies and monasteries, 
now burst forth from i's confinement, and enlightened by 
its rays the whole face of Europe. The great Universities 
of Naples, Vienna, Salamanca, Cambridge, and Lisbon, in- 
stitutions of which Europe is proud at the present day, 

,were founded during this century. Among the scholars of 
this age, the following were the most distinguished, Roger 
Bacon, an eminent English philosopher; Matthew, of Pa- 
ris, an accurate English historian, also distinguished as an 
orator and a poet; the names of Albertus Magnus, St. Bo- 
naventure, and St. Thomas, of Aquin, stand pre-eminent as 
ecclesiastical writers. 

31. The Fourteenth Age. The fourteenth century 
beheld the rise and progress of the savage and warlike na- 
tion of Ottomans, who were destined, at a future period, 
to destroy the last vestige of Roman power. Hitherto the 



148 MIDDLE AGES. 

conquest of the Turks had been confined to Asia, but un- 
der their celebrated chief, Orcan, they crossed the straits 
of Constantinop'e, and carried their victorious arms into 
the plains of Europe ; they took several important towns, 
and finally made the city of Adrianople, the seat of their 
empire. The Greek emperors,' alarmed at the progress of 
the Turks, and feeling sensibly the want of support from 
the West, used the most strenuous efforts to effect the re- 
union of the Greek with the Latin church ; but the long 
settled prejudice of their subjects, placed an insuperable 
barrier to ail their endeavors. 

32. England, during the greater part of ibis century, 
was either involved in domestic broils, or engaged in hos- 
tilities with France ; Germany and Italy were perpetually 
in arms, while all Europe was distracted by the great schism 
of the West, caused by the different competitors for the 
pontifical chair. 

33. A few of the most remarkable institutions, which 
characterize the history of Europe and the stMte of society 
during the Middle Ages, were those of the Feudal Sys- 
tem and Chivalry, the Crusades and Monastic Establish- 
ments. WiLh respect to the three first, we will speak un- 
der their proper heads. The last, however, may deserve 
a passing notice. Whatever may be our individual opin- 
ions with regard to the Monastic Institutions, at the pre- 
sent day, all impartial historians admit, that they were pe- 
culiarly beneficial to society during the Middle Ages. 

34. In these institutions, particularly the larger monas- 
teries and abbies, schools of instruction were established, 
in which a taste for the classics and the more useful branches 
of study, were carefully preserved. In all, the monks had 
their various duties assigned them. While numbers were 
employed in transcribing books for the use of the church 
and schools, others were engaged in teaching in the acade- 
mies attached to these institutions, while others again, were 
occupied in manual labor, in attending to the duties of the 
farm, the garden and the like, having at the same time, cer- 
tain hours set apart for devotional exercises. 

35. Previous to the discovery of the art of printing, 
books were extremely scarce, and only procured at an im- 
mense price; this circumstance tended materially to retard 
the progress of science. The labor of transcribing a work 
was great, and the process tedious, hence the multiplica- 
tion of books, was extremely slow. The monasteries, how- 
ever, supplied in some measure, this deficiency, always 



SARACEN EMPIRE. 149 

employing a number of their inmates in the laudable work 
of transcribing books. They not only transcribed such 
books as were immediately used in the church and schools, 
but also carefully transcribed and preserved, the writings of 
ancient authors; hence whatever we have of ancient liter- 
ature, has been chiefly transmitted to us through the medi- 
um of the nionasteries. 

36. They served, therefore, during the Middle Ages, a 
twofold purpose, as literary institutions, where the sons of 
the great and the children of the poor, shared alike, the 
benefits of education ; and as a source from which books 
of instruction were furnished, supplying in a limited man- 
ner, the place of printing es:ablishmenis of more modern 
times. 

Like other institutions, they may have had their faults, 
but they were rather the faults of individuals, or the age, 
than of the institutions themselves. While some, under 
the garb of religion, may have entered them as a place for 
the enjoyment of ease and repose ; they afforded an asy- 
lum for the poor and afflicted of every class. 



SARACEN EMPIRE. 
The Rise of Mahomelanism, Saracen Conquests, fyc. 

1. The Saracens were a people, who inhabited the north 
western part of Arabia; like the other tribes of the coun- 
try, they traced their descent from Ishmael, and professed 
a mixed religion, made up of Judaism and idolatry. They 
had but little intercourse with the neighboring nations, ex- 
eept when they occasionally sold their services, as merce- 
naries, to those who paid them the most liberal reward, 
and were usually noted for their courage and bravery. 
Many of the Christian sects, in order to avoid persecution, 
had taken refuge in Arabia, and towards the end of the 
sixth century, Christianity prevailed in some parts of the 
country. 

2. Such was the &tate of Arabia when Mahomet or Mo- 
hammed, the famous imposter, appeared. He was a na- 
tive of Mecca, and was born about the year 570. At the 
age of forty, he assumed the quality of a prophet, and pre- 
tended that lie had received a divine commission to restore 



150 SARACEN EMPIRE. 

the Jewish and Christian religions, which he maintained, 
had greatly fallen from their primitive purity. Upon this 
foundation, he established his system of religion, which 
consisted of a compound of Judaism, Christianity and of 
his own fanciful notions. Being subject to fits of epilepsy, 
he attributed them to the visits of the Archangel Gabriel^ 
by whom he pretended he was taught, but whose presence 
lie was unable to bear without trances and convulsions. 

3. As Mahomet was a man of no education, even unable 
to read or write, the Koran, or Alcoran, the book which 
contains the principles of his doctrine, was compiled with 
the assistance of a Jewish Rabbin, and a Nestorian monk. 
The Koran consists chiefly of some beautiful sentences 
taken from holy writ, with a strange medley of the most 
absurd ideas, without connection or design, ihough ex- 
pressed in a lofty and animated style. The two leading 
principles of his religion, were that, " There is but one 
God, and Mahomet is his prophet." He taught that oth- 
ers, at various times, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus 
Christ, had been divinely commissioned to teach mankind; 
but that he himself was the last and the greatest of the 
prophets. 

4. He propagated his religion by the sword, and stimu- 
lated the courage of his followers, by the promise of a 
martyr's crown in a paradise of delights, to every one who 
should fall in battle. It was inculcated as a fundamental 
doctrine, that, " to fight for the faith was an act of obedi- 
ence to God." Hence the Mahometans styled their fierce 
and bloody ravages, Sacred Wars. They termed their re- 
ligion Islam or Islamism ; and called themselves Mussul- 
mans or Moslem*, that is, true believers. 

Mahomet, at the commencement of his efforts, had but 
little success in making proselytes. His first converts were 
his wife Kadija, his slave Zeid, his father-in-law Abube- 
ker, and his cousin the famous Ali. These with ten oth- 
ers, were all whom he had persuaded to acknowledge the 
truth of his mission at the expiration of three years. 

5. A popular tumult being raised against him at Mecca, 
he was obliged to retire in order to save his life; he fled in 
disguise, to Medina. This event ca'led the Hegira, or the 
flight, forms the Mahometan era, corresponding to the year 
A. D. G22. He was received at Medina in triumph, and 
there assumed the sacerdotal and regal office. Shortly af- 
ter this, he placed himself at the head of an army of his 
fdlowers an:! cumrne-noed !o propagate his religion, accord- 



SARACEN KMFIKti. 151 



ing to his maxim, by the sword. He first attacked tire car- 
avans which passed through Arabia, for the purpose of 
trade, and thus enriched his soldiers with the booty. En- 
couraged by this success, he took the city of Mecca, which 
he entered in triumph, about the year 629. From this pe- 
riod until Ilis death, he was constantly in the field; he 
fought in person nine battles, subdued all Arabia, extend- 
ed his conquest to Syria, and after a career of victory, died 
at Medina, at the age of 63, ten years after his flight from 
Mecca to that city. 

6. One of the principle causes of the success, which at- 
tended the arms of Mahomet, was the inflexible severity 
he exercised towards the vanquished. It was his usual 
practice to propose to those whom he threatened with war, 
three conditions, namely, the adoption of his religious sys- 
tem, the payment of a tribute, or an appeal to the sword. 
If they chose the latter, no quarter was gFanted to them ; 
only the women, the children, and aged persons were 
spared, and reduced to slavery. Another cause of his suc- 
cess, was the absolute assurance of future bliss, which he 
held out to his followers, whereby they were rendered 
equally happy, either to conquer or to die in the field of 
battle, for the propagation of their religion. 

7. Mahomet was succeeded by his father-in-law, Abu- 
beker, a man of great repute among the Arabs ; he is styled 
the first caliph, a title which signifies in A-rabic, successor 
or vicar. He, pursuing a career of conquest similar to that 
of his predecessor, invaded Syria, and took the .cities of 
Bostra. Palmyra, and Damascus; the latter city was taken 
after a siege of six months, and most of its inhabitants in- 
humanly put to the sword by order of Kaled, who was at 
that time the commander of the Saracen forces. Abu-beker 
died in the third year of his reign, and the 63d of his age, 
having previously named Omar, his successor. 

8. Omar, aided by the celebrated general Obediah, in th 
course of one campaign, subdued Syria, Phcenicia, Mesc 
potamia and Ohaldea; and in a second, reduced the who! 
of Persia. His army under Amiou, took the c ty of Alex- 
andria and subdued Egypt. Amrou being requested to 
spare the Alexandrian library, which at that time contained 
upwards of five hundred thousand volumes, wrote to the 
caliph for directions respecting the books. Omar answered, 
that if they agreed with the Koran, they were useless ; and 
if they differed from it, they were dangerous, in either case, 
they were to be destroyed. The books were accordingly 



e 

2S0- 

Ijb 



152 SARACEN EMPIRE. 

distributed throughout the city and served, it is said, to 
warm the public baihs for six months. 

9. Omar, during a reign of ten years, reduced upwards 
of thirty thousand cities and villages to his dominion, and is 
said have demolished 4,000 Christian churches, and to have- 
erected 1,400 mosques for the Mahometan worship. He 
was finally assassinated at Medina, in 644, by a Persian 
slave, whose complaints against his master, he had refused 
to hear. Oth man was immediately chosen his successor, 
who added Bactriana and a pari of Tartary, to the domin- 
ion of the caliphs. On his death, Ali, the son-in-law of 
Mahomet was chosen to succeed him. Ali is regarded as 
one of the bravest and most virtuous of the caliphs; his 
reign was illustrious although it lasted only live years. In 
the space of less than half a century, the Saracen domin- 
ions, were more extensive than what remained of the Ro- 
man empire; and ill 100 years from the flight of Mahomet 
from Mecca to Medina, the empire of his successors ex- 
tended from India to the Atlantic, comprehending Persia, 
Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, north of Africa and 
Spain. 

10. During the reign of Ali, a schism took place among 
the followers of Mahomet, which continues to divide them 
to the present time. Abu-beker, Omar, and Oth man, are 
regarded as usurpers, by the partisans of A!i, and are brand- 
ed by the name of Shyites, or schismatics. On the other 
hand, these three caliphs are held in the greatest veneration, 
by the opponents of Ali, who style themselves Sonnites, 
because they follow the traditions of their Mahometan an- 
cestors ; while the Shyites acknowledge the Koran only. 
The Persians are of the sect of Ali ; the Turks are the 
Sonnites and Ottomans, or the disciples of Othman. Be- 
tween the two parties, a mutual hatred and animosity still 
exists. 

1 1. Ali removed the seat of the Mussulman empire from 
Mecca to Cvfa, on the Euphrates, and during the year 768, 
it was removed by Almanzor to Bagdad, which became the 
most illustrious caliphate in the history of the Saracens. 
Next to Bagdad, the other most distinguished caliphate, was 
that of Cordova, in Spain. Almanzor, who built the city 
of Bagdad, and transferred to it the seat of the Saracen em- 
pire, was a liberal patron of learning and science, and the 
first caliph who introduced the cultivation of them among 
the Saracens. The reign of Havoun al Raschid, the twen- 
ty-fifth caliph, who was contemporary with Charlemagne, 



SARACEN EMPIRE. 153 

was the most illustrious in the whole dynasty, and is re- 
garded as the Augustan age of Arabic literature. This 
prince distinguished himself by his valor and generosity; 
also by his equitable government and his patronage of 
learned men. Schools at this period were established in 
the principal towns. The sciences chiefly cultivated, were 
medicine, geometry, and astronomy ; also poetry and works 
of fiction commanded some attention. 

12. From the time of the removal of the seat of govern- 
ment to Bagdad, the importance of Arabia began to decline. 
Many chiefs of the interior provinces, asserted their inde- 
pendence, and only regarded the caliph as the head of their 
religion. As the conquests of the Saracens extended, their 
states became disunited. Spain, Egypt, Morocco, and In- 
dia, had at an early period, their separate sovereigns, who 
continued to regard the caliphs of Bagdad as the successors 
of the prophet, although they acknowledged in them no 
temporal jurisidction. Thirty-seven caliphs of the house 
of Abbas, reigned in succession. For 490 years, Bagdad 
continued to be the seat of the Saracen empire, during 
which time, it sustained several obstinate sieges, and was 
the seat of various revolutions. 

13. In the 656th year of the Hegira, A. D. 1258, Bag- 
dad was taken by Hulaku, the grand-son of the celebrated 
Genghis Khan. Al Mostasem, the last of the caliphs, was 
put to death ; the caliphate abolished, and the Saracen em- 
pire terminated. The manner in which Al Mostasem was 
put to death, was somewhat singular. He had been noted 
for his pride and ostentation ; when he appeared in public 
he usually wore a veil, to conceal his face from the people, 
whom he considered as unworthy to look upon him. After 
the taking of the city, Hulaku, with the design of punish- 
ing his pride, ordered the wretched caliph to be confined 
in a leather bag and to be dragged through the streets, till 
he expired. At the present time, the Saracens, once so 
powerful, possess little other territory than the deserts of 
Arabia, and are usually known by the name of Arabs. 



154 FEUDAL SYSTEM. 



FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

1. The Feudal System had its origin among the Goths, 
Vandals, Lombards, and other barbarous nations, that over- 
run the continent of Europe, on the decline of the Roman 
empire. It was adopted in Fiance, during the reign of 
Charlemagne, and is generally supposed to have been in- 
troduced into England by William the Conqueror. 

2. When the northern barbarians had overrun the Ro- 
man empire, the conquered provinces were divided by lot, 
among the different chieftains, without any other obligation 
existing between them, than that of uniting their forces in 
case of war, for their mutual defense. But the fundamen- 
tal principles of the Feudal System, were established in 
the following order : The king or chief, who led his re- 
spective tribes to conquest, retained for himself, by far the 
largest share of the conquered territory, dividing the re- 
maining portion of the land among his followers, according 
to their rank, who bound themselves to render him merely 
military services. The example of the king, was imitated 
by his nobles, who, under similar conditions, granted por- 
tions of their estates to their dependants. The granter, 
was called lord, and those to whom the grant was made, 
were styled feudatories or vassals. 

3. The feudal government, though well calculated for 
defense, was nevertheless, very defective in its provisions 
for the internal order of society. The great barons or 
lords, possessed extensive tracts of country, erected on 
them fortified castles, in places difficult of access, oppress- 
ed the people, slighted the civil authorities, and frequency 
set their sovereigns at defiance. 

4. A kingdom resembled a number of confederate states, 
under one common head ; the barons or lords, acknowledg- 
ing a species of allegiance to their sovereign, yet when 
obedience was refused, it could only be enforced, by an ap- 
peal to arms. But the great mass of the people who culti- 
vated the land, were called serfs or villains, and lived in 
in the most servile condition. They were not permitted to 
bear arms, nor suffered to leave the estates of their lords. 
As each of the feudal lords was independent within the 
limits of his own immediate possessions, and as the thread 
of unity, existing between them, was at all times feeble, 
It was natural to suppose, that frequent disputes and san- 
guinary cbntests were the tfonsequenrie. Such in reality, 



THE CRUSADES. 155 

was the case ; henee we find, that Europe, during the ex- 
istence of the Feudal System, exhibited an almost uninter- 
rupted scene of anarchy, turbulence, and destructive war- 
fare. 

5. Some of the causes assigned for the gradual decline 
of the Feudal System, were the Crusades, the extension 
of commerce, the increase and distribution of wealth and 
knowledge, and lastly, the change of warfare, which fol- 
lowed the invention of gunpowder. It still exists in a par- 
tial degree in some parts of Europe, particularly in Russia, 
Poland, and in some portions of Germany. 



THE CRUSADES. 

1. The Crusades were military expeditions undertaken 
by the Christians of Europe, for the purpose of delivering 
the Holy Land, and particularly, the sepulchre of our Sa- 
viour, from the oppressive dominion of the Turks. As 
early as the year 637, Jerusalem fell into the hands of the 
Saracens, who, for political reasons, permitted the Chris- 
tians to visit the city. In 1065, the Seljukian Turks, a 
wild and ferocious tribe of Tartars, obtained possession of 
the holy city ; from this period, the Christian inhabitants 
were exposed to every species of outrage and insult. The 
Christians of Europe, actuated by motives of religion, were 
often induced to visit those places, hallowed by the foot- 
steps and sanctified by the sufferings of the Saviour of 
man. But if, after traveling thousands of miles, amidst 
dangers and hardships, they reached Palestine, they were 
only allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem on the payment 
of a certain sum of money, and if they succeeded in gain- 
ing admittance, they were exposed like other Christian in- 
habitants, to all the rigors of Mahometan cruelty ; it is even 
stated by creditable historians, that some were loaded with 
chains and compelled to draw a cart or plough, while others 
were condemned to an ignominious death. 

2. Such was the condition of Palestine, when Peter, a 
native of Amiens, in France, surnamed the Hermit, on ac- 
count of his retired life, undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusa- 
lem. Moved at the sight of the cruel oppression, which 
weighed upon the Christians of Asia, he prevailed upon 
Simon, the venerable patriarch of Jerusalem, to write to 



156 THE CRUSADES. 

the pope, and to the princes of Europe, for the purpose of 
soliciting their aid, in arresting the cruelty of the Turks, 
exercised against their brethren in the East, offering him- 
self to be the bearer of these letters. The patriarch hav- 
ing assented to this measure, Peter immediately returned 
to Europe, and presented himself before pope Urban II. 
He was kindly received by the pontiff, who readily entered 
into his views, and commissioned him to go forth and 
preach in favor of the suffering Christians in Palestine, 
and the deliverance of Jerusalem from the hands of the In- 
fidels. 

3. Peter, who was eminently qualified for this important 
office, traveled through Italy, France, and other countries, 
and by his pathetic and glowing eloquence, enkindled in 
the breasts of his hearers, the same zeal that animated his 
own. Finally, the subject was brought before a council, 
held at Placentia, and afterwards before the council at 
Clermont, in France, towards the close of the year 1095. 
After Peter had spoken on the subject of the holy war, 
with his usual ardor, the pope himself, addressed the as- 
sembled bishops and princes, in an eloquent and animated 
discourse, which he concluded in the following words : 
" Go now and take the sword of the Maccabees, protect 
the people of God, and defend your persecuted brethren 
against the implacable enemies of the Christian name. 
Mussulman impiety has overspread the fairest regions of 
Asia; Ephesus, Nice, and Antioch, have become Mahom- 
etan cities ; the barbarous hords of the Turks, have plant- 
ed their colors on the very shores of the Hellespont, hence 
they threaten waT to all the states of Christendom. Unless 
you oppose a mighty barrier to their triumphant course, 
how can Europe be saved from invasion?" 

4. At the conclusion of this discourse, the whole assem- 
bly exclaimed, " it is the will of God," and hastened to 
enroll their names for the sacred expedition. As a mark of 
their engagement, it was proposed that a cross of red mate- 
rial, should be worn on the right shoulder, and from this 
circumstance, the name of the Crusade is derived. Such 
were the views entertained by the first crusaders, and such 
were the circumstances that called the Crusades into being. 

5. The First Crusade. The enthusiasm, which had 
manifested itself at the council of Clermont, was soon dif- 
fused throughout every part of Christendom ; thousands 
from every part of Europe, hastened to enlist under the 
banner of the cross. Domestic quarrels and private ani- 



THE CRUSADES. 157 

mosities, were buried in oblivion ; the sovereign and the 
noble, the prince and the peasant, animated alike with a 
kindred feeling, began to prepare for their departure to the 
East. 

6. Among the princes, who engaged in the first Crusade, 
the following were the most conspicuous : Raymond, 
count of Toulouse; Robert, duke of Normandy, brother 
to the king of England ; Hugh the Great, count of Ver- 
mandois, and brother to the king of France ; Robert, earl 
of Flanders ; Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lorraine, and 
various persons of distinguished rank. Among these, God- 
frey of Bouillon, equally eminent for his amiable virtues 
and extraordinary valor, held the most prominent place, al- 
though it does not appear that he was invested with the 
chief command. 

7. Early in the spring of 1096, the army of the Crusa- 
ders, amounting, according to some authors, to more than 
seven hundred thousand persons, commenced their march 
towards the East, in two different directions. The first 
division of this vast multitude, under the command of Pe- 
ter the Hermit, being destitute of that subordination and 
discipline so requisite in large armies, met in general, with 
a disastrous fate. Many of them were slain on their march 
through Hungary and Bulgaria, by the inhabitants, whose 
attacks they had provoked, by the outrages they commit- 
ted ; those who succeeded in reaching Asia, were met by 
sultan Solyman, on the plains of Nice, and almost entirely 
annihilated, before they came in sight of Jerusalem. 

8. The second division, under the command of able and 
experienced officers, such as Godfrey and Baldwin, his 
brother, acted with more prudence, and arrived safe at Con- 
stantinople. The Greek emperor, Alexis, alarmed at the 
multitude of warriors that surrounded his capital, lost no 
time in facilitating their departure. He treated the leaders 
of the Crusaders with every courtesy, and concluded a 
treaty with them, by which they agreed to conquer in his 
name, and restore those cities which had formerly belonged 
to his empire, on condition that he should aid them in the 
conquest of the Holy Land ; he then gave orders that his 
vessels should be prepared without delay, to convey them 
across the Bosphorus to the Asiatic coast. 

9. The Christian army, which amounted to about six 
hundred thousand infantry, and one hundred thousand cav- 
alry, commenced its march towards Nice, a city in Bethy- 
nia, to which they laid siege. Nice, reduced to the last 



158 THE CRUSADES. 

extremity, was on the point of yielding to the Crusaders, 
when the Greek emperor, by private embassies, prevailed 
on the inhabitants to surrender to him, rather than to the 
Latins. This duplicity on the part of Alexis, highly dis- 
pleased the Crusaders, and from the little inclination mani- 
fested by the Greek monarch towards fulfilling his engage- 
ments, the Latin lords thought themselves no longer bound 
by the treaty. After the reduction of Nice, they proceed- 
ed eastward, conquered Edessa, defeated an army of 600,- 
000 Saracens, near Durylaeum, in Phrygia, took Antioch, 
where they were reduced to the utmost distress by famine, 
and finally advanced to Jerusalem, which they took after a 
siege of forty days. 

10. Dreadful was the scene that followed the first trans- 
ports of victory. The Crusaders, exasperated by their 
long suffering, and by the obstinate resistance of the Sara- 
cens, and being probably, afraid of new dangers, put to the 
sword nearly all the garrison and inhabitants of Jerusalem. 
The streets, the mosques and citadel, were all filled with 
blood. After this, the attention of the princes was directed 
towards the defense of the recently conquered city. The 
heroic and generous Godfrey, duke of Lorraine, who had 
abstained from all the carnage, that followed the taking of 
the city, was chosen king, by unanimous consent. He ac- 
cepted the appointment with diffidence, but constantly re- 
fused the diadem and other insignia of royalty, saying, that 
he could never consent to wear a crown of gold, where 
the Saviour of the world, had worn a crown of thorns. 

11. Scarcely was he proclaimed king, when the approach 
of an army of 400,000 Saracens, threatened the destruction 
of the kingdom. With about 20,000 followers, Godfrey sal- 
lied forth to meet this powerful host. The two armies met 
on the plains of Ascalon, and notwithstanding the disparity 
of numbers, the Saracens suffered a most disastrous defeat, 
and Godfrey returned in triumph to Jerusalem. 

12. The Crusaders having divided Palestine and Syria, 
into four states, and seeing the object of their expedition 
accomplished, began to think of returning to Europe ; but 
as they withdrew their forces, the Turks gradually recov- 
ered their power. Godfrey, after enjoying the regal digni- 
ty for the short space of one year, also returned to Europe, 
and was succeeded in the kingdom of Jerusalem, by his 
brother, Baldwin I. 

13. After the death of Baldwin II., in 1130, jealousy 
and violent dissensions, began to prevail among the princes 



THE CRUSADES. 169 



Hi 



the kingdom of Jerusalem, and from this period, its 
prosperity began rapidly to decline. The Saracens taking- 
advantage of these disorders, renewed their attacks, took 
Edessa, and threatened the entire destruction of the Chris- 
tian kingdom in the East. Surrounded by these calami- 
ties, the Christians of Palestine, found themselves con- 
strained to the necessity of soliciting aid from the princes 
of Europe ; this circumstance gave rise to the second Cru- 
sade. 

14. The Second Critsade. Immediately after the ar- 
rival of the deputies, who had been sent from Syria, for 
the purpose of obtaining assistance in Europe, a second 
Crusade was preached, under the direction of pope Eugen- 
ius III., by St Bernard, the learned and eloquent abbot of 
Clairvaux, A. D. 1147. 

15. Louis VII. of France, and Conrad III. of Germany, 
with 300,000 of their subjects, assumed the cross and be- 
gan to prepare for an expedition to the East. Conrad, who 
proceeded in advance of the French monarch, was defeat- 
ed by the Turks, near Iconium, and Louis himself, suffer- 
ed a signal overthrow near the city of Laodicea, in Phry- 
gia, with the loss of the flower of his army. After these 
disasters, the two monarchs succeeded in reaching Pales- 
tine, and having arrived at Jerusalem, they summoned all 
the Latin princes of Asia to a council, where it was deter- 
mined to abandon the design of re-conquering Edessa, 
which had been the first object of the Crusade, and to make 
one united effort against Damascus. After their operations 
had been carried on for some time with every appearance 
of success, their designs were suddenly frustrated by a vio- 
lent disease, that broke out in the Christian camp; the 
siege was consequently abandoned. Louis and Conrad, 
disgusted at the conduct of the Latin princes in Asia, left 
them to their own wretched condition, and took their de- 
parture for Europe. Thus terminated the second Crusade, 
with immense loss to the West, without having produced 
the slightest advantage to the Christians of the East. 

16. The illustrious Saladin, who, about the year 1174, 
had raised himself to the sovereignty of Egypt, Arabia, 
Syria, and Persia, formed the design of re-conquering Pal- 
estine from the Christians. He defeated their army in the 
battle of Tiberias, and laid siege to Jerusalem, which was 
forced to surrender by capitulation, the Christian inhabi- 
tants being permitted to depart, on the payment of a certain 
sum of money. Thus again, the Holy city fell into the 



160 THE CRUSADES. 

hands of the Saracens, eighty-eight years after it had beeaa 
conquered by the first Crusaders, A. D. 1187. 

The Third Crusade. When the intelligence of the 
fate of Jerusalem reached Europe, the deepest affliction 
pervaded all ranks of the people. The venerable pontiff, 
Urban III., was so affected at the news, that he died of a 
broken heart. This however, was soon succeeded by a 
desire to retrieve the loss sustained by the Christians in 
the East. The most illustrious monarchs, reigning at that 
time in Europe, were Philip Augustus of France, Henry 
II. of England, and Frederic I. of Germany. These three 
sovereigns, with the principal lords of their respective do- 
minions, assumed the cross, and began to make preparation 
to enter on a third Crusade. 

18. Frederic, at the head of an army of 150,000 men, 
was the first of the three monarchs, that commenced his 
march towards the East. Victory and success attended his 
arms wherever he advanced, until an unfortunate circum- 
stance frustrated his brightest hopes. Having crossed into 
Asia-Minor, and passed the defiles of Mount Taurus, the 
German monarch proceeded at the head of his army, along 
the banks of the Cydnus, in which he was accidentally 
drowned, while bathing in the river. In the interval, Hen- 
ry II. of England died, and was succeeded by his son Rich- 
ard, surnamed Cseur de Lion, or the Lion-hearted, on ac- 
count of his extraordinary valor. To the adventurous and 
military spirit of Richard, the Crusades presented an irre- 
sistible attraction ; after making the necessary preparations, 
he joined Philip Augustus of France, and embarked on an 
expedition to the Holy Land. 

19. The two monarchs in conjunction, took Ptolemais ; 
but unhappily a misunderstanding between them prevented 
their further action in concert; in consequence of this, 
Philip leaving a part of his forces in Palestine, returned to 
France. Richard being left to the sole command, ably sus- 
tained the contest against the sultan Saladin, whom he sig- 
nally defeated, in the memorable battle near Ascalon. The 
feats of arms, displayed by Richard, on this and other oc- 
casions, more resemble the achievements of a hero of ro- 
mance, than the deeds of a prince of authentic history. On 
one occasion, it is related, that with one stroke of his 
sword, he severed the head, right shoulder and arm, from 
the body of a Saracen chief; on another, he threw himself 
with so much ardor into the thickest of the contest, that for 
some moments, he disappeared amidst the host of his ene- 



THE CRUSADES. 161 

mies; when he returned, his horse was covered with blood, 
and so numerous were the darts and arrows, fastened in his 
shield and dress, that according to an ocular witness, he re- 
sembled a cushion covered with needles. 

20. His army being at length reduced by famine and fa- 
tigue, the English monarch began to think of returning to 
Europe. Accordingly, having concluded a truce for three 
years and eight months, with Saladin, on terms advantage- 
ous to the Christians, he took his departure for his own 
dominions. The vessel in which he sailed, being wrecked 
on the coast of the Adriatic sea, Richard resolved to pursue 
his course by land ; but as he passed through Germany, 
with only a few attendants, he fell into tha hands of the 
emperor Henry IV., by whom he was retained a prisoner, 
until he was ransomed by his subjects, who paid for his re- 
lease the sum of £300,000 ; he finally reached his own 
dominions, after an absence of four years. 

Such was the result of the third Crusade ; although it did 
not terminate in the recovery of the Holy city, still it led 
to the conquest of the island of Cyprus, and the surrender 
of Acre, a town of considerable importance to the Chris- 
tians. 

21. The fourth Crusade. A fourth Crusade was un- 
dertaken about the year 1195, in which Henry IV., empe- 
ror of Germany, bore the most distinguished part; but his 
death, which happened before he reached Palestine, and the 
unfortunate quarrels among the other leaders, frustrated the 
design of recovering the Holy Land. 

22. The fifth Crusade. About the close of the twelfth 
century, during the pontificate of pope Innocent III., a fifth 
Crusade was undertaken by Boniface, marquis of Montfer- 
rat, and Baldwin, earl of Flanders. Having made the 
necessary preparations, they collected their forces at Zora, 
a city in Dalmatia, for the purpose of transporting them to 
Palestine by sea. But before their departure from this 
place, Alexius, the son of Isaac, the Greek emperor, arrived 
at the camp, bearing the intelligence that his father had 
lately been dethroned, and inhumanly deprived of his sight, 
and was then in the hands of the usurper of his crown ; at 
the same time, pledging himself in the most solemn man- 
ner, to aid the Crusaders in the recovery of the Holy Land, 
to maintain during his life, five hundred knights for its de- 
fense, and offering moreover, the payment of a considerable 
sum of money, if they on their part, would lend assistance 

7* 



162 THE CRUSADES. 

in expelling the usurper and in restoring his father to the 
throne. 

23. After some deliberation, the Crusaders accepted his 
proposals ; and sailing immediately from Zora, they direct- 
ed their course to Constantinople, which they took after a 
siege of ten days. The usurper made his escape ; the old 
emperor being released from prison and restored to his 
throne, immediately ratified the engagements made by his 
son to the Latins. But scarcely had the Crusaders departed 
on their march towards Palestine, when a sudden revolu- 
tion in the city, obliged them to return. The emperor and 
his son Alexius, fell victims to the intrigues and perfidy 
of one of their courtiers, surnamed Murzuphlis, who placed 
himself upon the throne. 

24. As soon as the news of this murder and usurpation, 
reached the camp of the Crusaders, they resolved to avenge 
the death of the unfortunate princes, their allies and bene- 
factors. Marching back to Constantinople, they took the 
city after a furious assault, though it was defended by up- 
wards of 200,000 men, and contained a population of about 
one million of inhabitants. 

Having thus a second time, in the short space of a few 
months, conquered the great capital of the East, the Latins 
proceeded to elect an emperor from their own body. The 
choice fell upon Baldwin, Count of Flanders, who was ac- 
cordingly invested with the ensigns of royalty, and quietly 
assended the imperial throne, A. D. 1204. 

25. Here terminated the efforts of the Crusaders ; satis- 
fied with this splendid acquisition, they attempted nothing 
further against the Saracens. Such were the circumstances 
that led to the establishment of the Latin empire at Con- 
stantinople ; few events on the page of history, are more 
curious and interesting, than this singular revolution. It 
was destined however, to be of short duration ; after a pre- 
carious existence of fifty-seven years, it again fell under 
the dominion of the Greeks. 

26. The sixth Crusade. The last expedition having 
failed to accomplish the object for which it was designed, 
namely the recovery of the Holy Land, a sixth Crusade was 
shortly afterwards undertaken. Among those who bore a 
distinguished part in this expedition, was John of Brienne, 
a French nobleman, who at the head of 100,000 men, 
made a descent upon Egypt, with a design of destroying 
the power of the sultan at the seat of his government. He 
took Damietta, but owing to subsequent disasters, particu- 



THE CRUSADES. 163 

larly the inundation of the Nile, he was finally compelled 
to abandon his conquests and to evacuate Egypt, A. D. 
1221. 

27. About the same period, the famous Fredric II., em- 
peror of Germany, led an army into Palestine, and obtained 
by treaty from the sultan, the restoration of Jerusalem ; but 
so little precaution did he take to defend it, that it shortly 
fell again into the hands of the infidels. Palestine was 
afterwards visited by several other princes of Europe, with- 
out being able to effect little more than to conclude a treaty 
of peace. After the departure of Richard, earl of Corn- 
wall, brother to the king of England, a sudden irruption of 
fierce barbarians from Korazan, laid waste the Holy Land, 
and left Palestine in the most deplorable condition. 

28. The seventh and eighth Crusades. At this pe- 
riod, A. D. 1244, France was under the mild administration 
of St. Louis IX., a prince equally distinguished for his 
heroic fortitude and for all the more amiable virtues that 
adorn the Christian heart. The deplorable state of Pales- 
tine, deeply afflicted his generous soul, and on the recovery 
from a dangerous illness, he resolved to assume the cross, 
and by his exhortations, induced many of his nobles to imi- 
tate his example. After four years' preparation, he set out 
on the expedition, accompanied by his queen, his three 
brothers, and all the knights of France. He began the en- 
terprise by invading Egypt, and after losing one-half of his 
numerous army by contagious diseases, he was defeated and 
taken prisoner by the Saracens. Having ransomed himself 
and his army, he proceeded to Palestine, where he remained 
for several years, in endeavoring to secure the welfare of 
the Christian colonies, by repairing the fortifications of the 
towns, which yet remained in their possession. The death 
of his mother, to whom he had entrusted the government 
during his absence, obliged him to return to France. 

29. About thirteen years after his return from his first 
Crusade, Louis was induced to undertake a second. Having 
provided for the government of his kingdom in his absence, 
he embarked with sixty thousand chosen troops, landed in 
Africa and laid siege to Tunis. Before any thing of im- 
portance could be effected, a raging pestilence carried off 
one-half of his flourishing army; the king himself being 
numbered among its victims. This terminated the last of 
the Crusades, A. D. 1272. 

30. The effects of the Crusades. The period dur- 
ing which the Crusades continued, has been styled by some 



164 THE CRUSADES. 

historians, " the heroic age of Christianity." No other 
military enterprise ever claimed the attention of the Chris- 
tian world, so long and so universally as the Crusades. For 
nearly two centuries, Europe continued to send forth her 
legions, to conquer or die upon the plains of Asia. The 
two most powerful agents that can opperate upon the hu- 
man mind, combined to call them into being ; namely, zeal 
for religion and sympathy for suffering humanity. 

31. To see the" land of Palestine, so hallowed by all the 
associations dearest to the Christian heart, that land sancti- 
fied by the footsteps and watered by tears and blood of the 
Son of God, that land where the first light of Christianity 
dawned, trodden down by the footsteps of infidelity ; to see 
that Calvery where died the Redeemer of man, that sepul- 
chre in which he was laid, poluted and defiled by Mussulman 
impiety, is even at this distant day, capable of producing 
the deepest emotions. To deliver this land from the power 
of the infidels, who only held it by the right of conquest, 
was, at that period, deemed not only a lawful, but even a 
holy and sacred duty. 

32. On the other hand, the cruelties exercised against the 
defenseless Christians of Palestine and the pilgrims, whom 
a religious zeal had drawn to the Holy city, cried aloud to 
the princes of Europe for their interposition. The evils 
which marked the progress of the Crusades, were similar 
to those that follow in the train of other great military en- 
terprises. It is computed that two millions of Europeans, 
during their continuance, were buried in the East. 

33. Various opinions have been formed and maintained, 
respecting the tendency and effects of the Crusades. But 
whatever individual opinions may be entertained with re- 
gard to their object or their final issue, it is generally ad- 
mitted that they have been, in their ultimate results, bene- 
ficial to mankind. These results are observable in a greater 
or less degree, in the political condition, manners, and cus- 
toms, navigation, commerce and literature of Europe. 

34. In the first place, they checked the alarming progress 
of the Saracens and Seljukian Turks, who were thus pre- 
vented from penetrating into the very heart of Christendom. 
Secondly, they greatly contributed towards the gradual de- 
cline of the Feudal System, which at that period, prevailed 
throughout Europe. The great barons, who engaged in 
the Crusades, were obliged to sell a portion of their lands, 
in order to precure the means of conveying their troops into 
a foreign country. By this means, the aristocracy was 



THE CRUSADES. 165 

weakened, wealth more widely diffused, and the lower or- 
ders of society began to acquire property, influence, and a 
spirit of independence. The sovereigns in like manner, 
impelled by the same pecuniary necessity, sold to towns, 
important privileges and immunities, such as the right of 
electing their own magistrates, and being governed by their 
own municipal laws. 

35. Thirdly, these expeditions had a most beneficial in- 
fluence on commerce and navigation. Previous to this pe- 
riod, commerce had been carried on only in a very limited 
scale. The attention of the people of Europe, had never 
been sufficiently drawn to the great advantages of water 
transports, until the disasters of the first Crusaders, in at- 
tempting to march their forces by land, impressed upon the 
minds of those who succeeded, the expediency of convey- 
ing their troops by water. Hence by the frequent voyages 
to Palestine, the arts of navigation and ship-building, were 
rapidly improved, and from this period may be dated the 
great commercial prosperity and power of Venice, Persia 
and Genoa. Moreover, several new and valuable articles 
were imported from the East, which have since formed im- 
portant branches of trade, such as the sugar cane, with its 
various products and silk, which began to be manufactured 
in Italy about the year 1209. 

36. Finally, the Crusades although in some respects in- 
jurious to literature, were nevertheless, ultimately beneficial 
to it. The frequent communication of the people of the 
West, with Greece and Syria, which the Crusades neces- 
sarily occasioned, was one of the most powerful helps to- 
wards the complete revival of learning. At the time when 
the Crusades were undertaken, owing to the almost uninter- 
rupted series of hostilities, civil feuds and sanguinary wars, 
that had desolated the face of Europe, literature was com- 
paratively speaking, much neglected. In the East, however, 
particularly at Constantinople, learning and the arts were 
still cherished to some extent; the Crusaders, therefore, by 
their intercourse with a people more polished and enlight- 
ened than themselves, acquired a taste for the arts and sci- 
ences, which they did not fail to improve on their return to 
Europe. 

37. Hence we find that principal universities of Europe, 
even at the present day, were founded during the period of 
the Crusades or immediately after. The University of Pa- 
dua, and that of Paris, was founded in 1180 ; that of Na- 
ples, in 1230 ; that of Vienna, in 1238 ; that of Salamanca, 



166 CHIVALRY. 



in 1240 ; Cambridge, in 1280 ; and that of Lisbon, in 1290. 
For the many local and temporary calamities, to which the 
Crusades gave rise, these are a few of permanent and gen- 
erally admitted advantages, that have followed as their ulti- 
mate results. 



CHIVALRY. 

1. Chivalry or knighthood, was a military institution 
prevalent in Europe during the Middle Ages, and forms a 
remarkable feature in the history of that period. Nothing 
can be conceived more truly noble, than the leading objects 
of Chivalry: it united in its institution, a love of arms and 
military renown, an eagerness to support the weak, to pro- 
tect the oppressed, to avenge the wrongs of the widow and 
the orphan, to restrain the lawless, and to refine the rude; 
it blended with religion, the highest sentiments of honor, 
and inculcated a devoted attachment and inviolable fidelity 
to the female sex : in fine, it combined it its component ele- 
ments, valor and honor, courtesy and religion. 

2. The early history of Chivalry is involved in obscurity; 
the particular nations and the peculiar circumstances in 
which it had its origin, are not precisely known ; still the 
leading principles by which it is distinguished, may be 
found among the manners and customs of the Gothic na- 
tions, by whom the profession of arms was the only em- 
ployment esteemed honorable, and who were remarkable 
for the delicate and respectful gallantry, which they mani- 
fested towards the female sex. It was embodied into a form 
and regulated by certain laws under the Feudal System, and 
afterwards brought to maturity and gained the meridian of 
its splendor during the Crusades, when it assumed the aspect 
of a religious institution. Chivalry prevailed in almost 
every part of Europe, but in France, Spain, and Germany 
it attained its greatest purity ; in England, its introduction 
was later and its progress slower. 

3. There were three degrees of Chivalry, namely, knights 
bannarets, knights, and esquire. The first rank to which 
peculiar privileges were allowed, could only be attained by 
those who had passed through the other two degrees. The 
second, and by far the most numerous class, consisted of 
knights, who were generally persons of noble birth, al- 



CHIVALRY. 167 

though it frequently became the reward of merit, and sol- 
diers distinguished for their valor, were sometimes admitted 
into this class. The third class was the squirehood, con- 
sisting of a body of efficient soldiers, inferior in rank to the 
knights, but superior to the common soldiery. 

4. Those who were destined for Chivalry, were placed 
for education at the age of seven years in the castle of their 
father, or that of some neighboring noble, where they re- 
ceived the appellation of page or valet, until they arrived 
at the age of fourteen, when they obtained the title of 
esquire, and were authorized to bear arms. They were 
kept in active employment in the castle, being obliged to 
wait upon the lord and his lady at home, and attend them 
abroad, and thus become accustomed to obedience and cour- 
teous demeanor. Surrounded by noble and virtuous ladies, 
and valiant knights, the first impression made on their minds 
were those of virtue and love, honor and valor. From the 
ladies, they learned the first rudements of religion and love ; 
and in order that they might practice in some degree the 
lessons they received, it was customary for each youth to 
select some young, accomplished and virtuous lady, as his 
patroness, before whom he might display all his gallantry, 
and whose duty it was to improve and polish his manners. 

5. The esquires were employed in various offices in the 
castle, until the age of twenty-one, which was the proper 
age for admitting them to all the honors of knighthood. 
The candidate was required to prepare himself by rigid 
fasting, passing the night in prayer, and by a solemn con- 
fession ; and as a type of the purity of the life and man- 
ners that would be required of him, he was clothed in white. 
Having performed these preliminary rites, he then entered 
the church, where an examination took place ; and if judg- 
ed worthy to be admitted into the order of knighthood, he 
received the sacraments and took the oath, consisting of 
twenty-six articles, in which, among other things, he sol- 
emnly pledged himself, to defend the church, to respect the 
priesthood, to protect the ladies, and to redress the wrongs 
of the widow and the orphan. 

6. While yet on his knees, he received from the hands of 
the knights and the ladies, the ensignia of Chivalry ; his 
spurs, cuirass, coat of mail, and other parts of his armor ; 
and lastly his sword, which was previously blessed by the 
priest. The concluding ceremony was performed by one 
of the most distinguished Chevaliers present, who bestowed 
on the young knight, the accolade^ which consisted in giving 
him a slight blow on the shoulder or cheek, with his sword. 



168 CHIVALRY. 

7. The most important equipments of a knight, were his 
horse and his lance ; his other offensive arms were his 
sword, dagger, battle-axe, and mace. The endowments of 
an accomplished knight, at the most flourishing period of 
Chivalry, were beauty, dexterity in dancing, riding, hunt- 
ing, and tilting ; while piety, chastity, modesty, courtesy, 
liberality and sobriety, and above all an inviolable attach- 
ment to truth and invincible courage, were regarded as his 
necessary virtues. 

8. The professed knight possessed various privileges and 
dignities, which were not confined to the territories of his 
own sovereign, but extended through a greater part of Eu- 
rope. He could roam where he pleased in quest of adven- 
tures, and was at liberty to challenge all those of his order 
he met, to single combat. The laws of the institution made 
it the duty of every knight, to protect the chastity and honor 
of the ladies, and forbade him to speak disrespectful of them, 
or to suffer others to do so in his presence ; it was more- 
over incumbent upon him, to warn them against the com- 
mission of any thing that might lower them in his opinion. 
Strictly decorous and respectful towards himself, he expect- 
ed that they would never forfeit their claim to his esteem. 
If however, a lady transgressed the laws of decorum or 
prudence, he did not fail to stigmatize her fault, in the most 
pointed manner. If he passed the castle of one of this 
character, he marked it in some striking manner, as the 
dwelling of a lady unworthy to receive a true chevalier. 

9. Chivalry enjoined in a special manner, the three vir- 
tues of hospitality, humanity and courtesy. Every loyal 
knight was expected to have the door of his castle constant- 
ly open. As soon as one chivalier entered the castle of 
another, he considered himself at home, and was treated as 
if he were one of the family. Every thing that could con- 
tribute to his Comfort and his luxury was at his command. 
If he arrived wounded, every possible care was taken of 
him by the ladies, who were- proud of having in their pos- 
session the remedies proper for such occasions. To a van- 
quished foe, the most scrupulous and delicate attention was 
paid ; he was treated rather as a conqueror, than one who 
had been conquered. 

10. Tournaments and Jousts. Tournaments were mil- 
itary exercises performed by two parties of cavaliers, with 
hurtless weapons. No amusement was more patronized by 
the knights, or even sovereigns themselves, than these im- 
ages of war, which were often celebrated with a splendor 



CHIVALRY. 169 

beyond description, particularly at coronations, royal mar- 
riages, and after important victories. If the occasion was 
solemn, it was announced at the courts of different sover- 
eigns, who were invited to attend. Not only knights, but 
even kings and princes, who valued themselves upon their 
valor and gallantry, frequently entered the list. 

11. At a tournament, the place enclosed for the combat- 
ants, was surrounded by sovereigns and other nobles, by 
knights of distinguished fame, and by ladies of the highest 
rank, who were always appointed judges on these occa- 
sions ; a privilege however, which they seldom exercised, 
generally deputing their power to a knight, who on that 
account, was called the Knight of Honor. When the 
knights reached the lists, their arms were examined by the 
constables, in order that only hurtless weapons might be 
used. But notwithstanding this precaution, there existed 
in many instances, a disposition to convert the tournament 
into a real battle, and thus much blood was often uselessly 
spilt. 

12. Nothing but the reality could exceed the perform- 
ance of these hazardous and animating scenes. Frequently 
lances were broken, horse and knights were overthrown, 
and sometimes, though seldom, death ensued. While the 
tide of victory flowed to either side of the lists, the air was 
rent with the acclamations of the ladies, the minstrels, and 
the whole assembled multitude ; while the successful knight 
was hailed with triumphal honors, little inferior to those 
bestowed on a hero returning wreathed with the laurels of 
victory, over a vanquished foe. The court of Rome was 
justly hostile to tournaments, refusing the right of Chris- 
tian burial to those who fell on the tilting ground. 

13. Jousts were generally a combat between two knights, 
and usually took place at the conclusion of the tournaments. 
A knight, who had acquired a distinguished fame, would 
ride through the lists and call on the surrounding cavaliers, 
to encounter him in three strokes of the lance. If the 
challenge was accepted, the combat was conducted accord- 
ing to specified rules ; but such was the dexterity of the 
combatants, that the encounter with the lance, seldom 
proved fatal. 

14. The origin of the duel, which is now used as a 
mode of private revenge, may be traced to the Gothic na- 
tions. Under the Feudal System, and during the age of 
Chivalry, it was greatly patronized ; and it so far prevailed 



170 CHIVALRY. 

at an early period, among- the Franks and nations of Ger- 
many, that none were exempt from it, but women, invalids, 
and such as were under the age of twenty-one, and above 
the age of sixty. It was resorted to as a method of dis- 
covering truth, establishing innocence, and vindicating the 
character from a real or imaginary imputation. It is not 
surprising, that a practice so absurd, should have found 
adherents, during those ages, when the profession of arms 
was regarded as the only honorable employment, at a time 
when the human mind was, comparatively speaking, unen- 
lightened ; but that the same pernicious practice should 
still prevail, and meet with patrons at this age of enlighten- 
ment, is something diametrically opposite to the purer dic- 
tates of human reason. 

15. Whatever opinions we may entertain of Chivalry at 
the present day, it certainly had a powerful influence in 
producing a favorable change in the manners of society, 
during the ages in which it existed. It infused humanity 
into war, at a period when men made it almost a business 
of life ; it introduced courtesy of manners among those, 
who possessed but little refinement ; it fostered in its max- 
ims, a delicate sense of honor and a scrupulous adherence 
to truth; it cherished the finest feelings and respectful at- 
tachment towards the female sex ; and no institution, per- 
haps, ever had a more powerful influence to elevate woman 
to her proper sphere, than Chivalry. 

16. Chivalry embraced various orders or associations of 
cavaliers, formed for specific purposes, generally of a be- 
nevolent character, many of which remain to the present 
time. These orders were generally of two descriptions, 
namely, military and religious, and were established in dif- 
ferent countries, particularly in Palestine, England, Spain, 
France, and Italy. The foundation of the order of the 
knights, Hospitallers, who afterwards became so famous, 
as the knights of Malta, was laid about the middle of the 
eleventh -century, by a few Neapolitan merchants, who ob- 
Jained permission of the Saracen caliph, to erect at Jerusa- 
lem, a house for pilgrims. They afterwards founded in 
honor of St. John, a church and hospital, from which they 
took their name ; and besides attending to the sick and pil- 
grims, they bound themselves by vow, to defend the Chris- 
tians of the Holy Land, against the insults of the infidels. 
Thus the Hospitallers, without ceasing to be a religious, 
became a military order. 



CHIVALRY. 171 

17. The order of the Knights Templars, was instituted 
in the year 1118, also at Jerusalem, by several French and 
Flemish noblemen. They occupied a house in the city, 
which stood near the site of Solomon's temple, from which 
they derived their name. The Teutonic order, was estab- 
lished by a few noblemen from the cities of Bremen and 
Lubbeck, about 1190, and was intended for the relief of the 
German pilgrims. 



FRANCE 



SECTION I. 

The Foundation of the French Monarchy ; Merovingian 
and Carlovingian Kings ; from Jl. D. 420, to 987. 

1. The history of France is intimately connected with 
that of England, as the kings of the latter, for a long peri- 
od, assumed the title of king of France, and held posses- 
sion in it, of varied extent from the time of William the 
Conqueror, to the reign of queen Mary. The kingdom of 
France was originally possessed by the Celts or Gauls, a 
brave and warlike people, who were reduced to the Roman 
power in the time of Julius Caesar. The Franks, from 
whom the monarchy receives its name, emerging from the 
forests of Germany, made an irruption into Gaul about the 
year 420, and gradually increased in power under their suc- 
cessive kings, Pharamond, Clodio, Merovseus, and Chil- 
deric. 

2. In 481, Clovis, the son of Childeric, became king of 
the Franks, and is generally regarded as the founder of the 
French monarchy. He embraced Christianity through the 
influence of his virtuous queen, Clotilda, the daughter of 
the duke of Burgundy, and received baptism on Christmas 
day ; his example was immediately followed by three thous- 
and of his subjects. He made Paris the seat of his gov- 
ernment, and after a long and prosperous reign, he left his 
kingdom, according to the custom of the country, divided 
between his four sons, A. D. 511. 

3. In the year 690, Pepin d'Heristel became mayor of 
the palace, the first office under the crown ; at his death, he 
was succeeded in the office by his son, Charles Martel, one 
of the most renowned warriors of his age. He defeated the 



FRANCE. 173 

Saracens in a sanguinary battle, between Tours and Poic- 
tiers, in which, according to many historians, three hun- 
dred thousand of the enemy were slain, while the French 
lost only about fifteen hundred. Charles was succeeded in 
the office of mayor, by his son, Pepin the Short, who con- 
tinued to govern France for several years, while the weak 
and indolent Childeric III. was nominally king. 

4. Such was the state of things, when Pepin first thought 
of assuming the title and ensigns of royalty, while exer- 
cising the duties of the sovereign. Finding the people fa- 
vorable to his views, and having obtained a favorable ans- 
wer* from pope Zachary, who had been consulted on the 
subject, he finally concluded to prosecute his design. Ac- 
cordingly, in a great assembly of the people, he was pro- 
claimed king, while Childeric was removed to a monastery, 
where he died three years after this event, and with him 
ended the dynasty of the Merovingian sovereigns, A. D. 
752. 

5. About this period the Lombards, who were already 
master of a great, part of Italy, aimed at subduing the whole, 
had extended their conquests over the province of Raven- 
na ; even Rome itself, was on the point of falling into their 
hands, when pope Stephen applied for assistance to the 
emperor of Constantinople, in whose name the government 
of Rome was still exercised. But Constantine, who was 
at that time, too much engaged in his disputes with the 
church, to give his attention to the affairs of state, neglect- 
ed to send assistance to the Romans, who in their extremi- 
ty were obliged to turn for aid to the monarch of France. 

6. Pepin immediately responded to the call; but previ- 
ous to any act of hostility, he sent, at the pope's request, 
deputies to Astolphus, the king of the Lombards, request- 
ing him to desist from his hostile designs ; his proposals, 
however, were only answered by threats and insults. Pe- 
pin therefore, hastily collected his army, crossed the Alps, 
defeated the Lombards, and obliged Astolphus to accept 
humiliating conditions of peace. But scarcely had he de- 
parted from Italy, when the perfidious Astolphus re-com- 
menced hostilities and laid siege to Rome. Pepin a second 
time crossed the Alps, and having again defeated the Lom- 
bards, solemnly bestowed on pope Stephen and his succes- 

*The answer of the pope was the following words: " It were bet- 
ter that he should be king, in whom the sovereign authority resides." 
Eginard Annal. 



174 FRANCE. 

sors in the pontifical chair* his conquests in Italy ; in this 
manner was commenced the temporal power of the pope, 
A. D. 755. 

7. Pepin was succeeded by his two sons, Charles and 
Carlomon, but the latter dying shortly after the death of his 
father, Charles was left in possession of the undivided sov- 
ereignty. This distinguished monarch, known in history 
by the name of Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, is said 
to have been seven feet in height, of a robust constitution, 
and majestic appearance. He was eminent as a statesman 
and as a warrior, he far surpassed all the sovereigns of his 
age. He carried on a long and sanguinary war with the 
Saxons, which finally resulted in the reduction of their 
whole country. At the earnest solicitation of the Romans, 
he turned his arms against the Lombards, who, under their 
king Desidrius or Dideir, had broken the treaty concluded 
by Astolphus, and spred their ravages, so as to endanger 
the city of Rome. He defeated them and completely des- 
troyed their power in Italy. He afterwards conquered a 
part of Spain, and about the year 800, the rank and title of 
emperor of the West, was conferred on him by Pope Leo 
III. 

8. His empire comprised France, Netherlands, Germany, 
Switzerland, a part of Italy and Spain. He labored inces- 
santly to diffuse a spirit of literature, and encourage the use- 
ful arts throughout his vast dominions. He invited to his 
court, from foreign countries, men distinguished for their 
talents, among whom was Alcuin, a learned and virtuous 
Englishman, who opened an academy in the palace of the 
French monarch. Charlemagne himself, with his sons, 
frequently assisted at the lectures of this distinguished man. 
With regard to his table, he was extremely frugal, and in 
his dress, he was generally plain; the ladies of his court 
were usually employed at the needle or distaff, and he even 
took delight in appearing ornamented with the productions 
of his wife and daughters. 

9. Charlemagne died in 814, in the 71st year of his age, 
and 47th of his reign. He was succeeded by his son, 
Louis I., surnamed Debonair or the Mild. The reign of 
this monarch was inglorious, and rendered unhappy by the 
unnatural rebellion of his sons, who twice deposed and im- 
prisoned their father, and again restored him to the throne. 
Louis died in 840, leaving his dominions divided between 
his three sons. 



FRANCE. 1?5 

Charles II. presided over France ; Louis obtained Ger- 
many, and Lothaire reigned in Italy, under the title of em- 
peror. Bitter contentions between the three brothers, soon 
involved their subjects in sanguinary wars. Charles and 
Louis united their forces against Lothaire, who endeavored 
to deprive them of their inheritance. The rival brothers 
at length met in the famous battle of Fontenoy, where Lo- 
thaire was defeated and compelled to retire to his Italian 
dominions. The loss on both sides in this battle, is esti- 
mated at 100,000 men. 

10. Charles, after a weak reign, was succeeded by his 
son Louis, the Stammerer, who, after a short reign left his 
hingdom to his two sons, Louis III. and Carlomon. After 
the death of these princes, Charles the Fat, was elected to 
the throne, but he governed with so much weakness, that 
he was deposed and the crown transferred to Eudes, during 
the minority of Charles the Simple, who afterwards suc- 
ceeded to the throne. During the reign of this prince, the 
Normans, under their celebrated chief Rollo, invaded Neus- 
tria and established themselves in the north of France, 
which from them, took the name of Normandy, A.D. 912. 
The remaining kings of the Carlovingian line, were gener- 
ally weak princes, and their reigns were not distinguished 
for any remarkable events. After the death of Louis V., 
who died without issue, the French lords refused as his 
successor, his uncle Charles, duke of Lorraine, and trans- 
ferred the crown to Hugh Capet, duke of France, who, after 
defeating his rival, obtained possession of the throne, and 
thus formed the third or Capetian race of French kings, 
A. D. 987. 



SECTION II. 

Capetian Kings; from Hugh Capet to Philip VI. of 
Valois, A, I). 987, to 1328. 

1. Hugh Capet was an able sovereign, and his admin- 
istration was directed with wisdom ; he enacted several sal- 
utary laws, added considerably to his territory, and again 
made Paris the seat of government. Either through mod- 
esty or a fear of exciting the jealousy of his nobles, he 
never assumed the ensigns of royalty ; even on great, and 
solemn occasions, he appeared in a plain and simple dress. 



176 FRANCE. 

2. Robert, the son of Hugh, succeeded his father in 996. 
This prince is described as handsome in person and gentle 
in his disposition, but his reign presents few events of im- 
portance. His son Henry I. succeeded to the throne in 
1031; his reign was generally tranquil and free from any 
extraordinary incidents. The reign of Philip, who suc- 
ceeded his father in 1080, was distinguished for the preach- 
ing of the first Crusade by Peter the Hermit, and the in- 
vasion of France, by William the Conqueror, an event 
which laid the foundation of that long continued rivalship 
and series of hostilities, which for several succeeding cen- 
turies, existed between France and England. 

3. Philip died in 1108, and left his dominions to his son 
Louis VI., surnamed the Fair, an able and accomplished 
sovereign, who enjoyed a prosperous and useful reign. On 
his death-bed, he addressed his son who succeeded him, in 
the following words: "Remember that royalty is nothing 
more than a public charge, of which you must render a 
very strict account, to him, who makes kings and will judge 
them." Louis VII. was the next sovereign who swayed 
the sceptre of France. In conjunction with Conrad III., of 
Germany, he headed the third Crusade to Palestine, but 
was most unfortunate in that expedition. Louis had mar- 
ried Eleanor, heiress to the great duchy of Guienne, but 
divorced her for her levity and vices; and in a few weeks 
afterwards, she married Henry Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, 
who, in the following year, became Henry II. of England, 
and who by his marriage, acquired a great addition to his 
possessions in France. 

4. Philip II., surnamed Augustus, succeeded to the throne 
in 1180. No prince since the reign of Charlemagne, sur- 
passed Philip in military skill and enterprise. He signal- 
ized the commencement of his reign by the expulsion of 
the Jews from his dominions, and shortly afterwards joined 
his great rival, Richard I. of England, in the third Crusade, 
After the death of Richard, John, his brother, who succeed- 
ed him, was strongly suspected for having murdered Ar- 
thur, his nephew ; for this he was summoned by Philip, as 
his vassal, to be tried by a court of his peers ; on his re- 
fusal, Philip invaded Normandy and wrested that important 
province from the English monarch. 

5. Philip died in 1223, and was succeeded by his son 
Louis VIII., surnamed the Lion, on account of his valor. 
He died after a short reign of three years, on his return 
from an expedition against the Albigenses, who had (lis- 



FRANCE. 177 

tnrbed the south of France. Louis IX., commonly styled 
St. Louis, succeeded to the throne at the early age of 12 
years, and during his minority, his mother, Blanche, of 
Castile, filled the office of regent, in which she displayed 
great abilities. In the person of St. Louis, were united all 
those eminent qualities, that distinguish an illustrious sov- 
ereign, with all the virtues that adorn the Christian. His 
benevolence, piety and purity of intention are conspicuous 
in every action. In the early part of his reign, he vigor- 
ously repelled the invasion of Henry III., of England, 
whom he signally defeated near Taillebourg, and finally 
compelled him to sign a treaty of peace, His zeal for re- 
ligion prompted him to engage in two disastrous crusades, 
iii the second of which he died of a fever, near Tunis, in 
the 56th year of his age, and the 44th of his reign, A. D. 
1270. 

6. St. Louis was succeeded by his son Philip III., sur- 
named the Hardy, who continued the war against the in- 
fidels with vigor; defeated the Saracens and compelled the 
king of Tunis to conclude a peace, on terms favorable to 
the Christians. Philip IV., surnamed the Fair, from the 
beauty and elegance of his person, succeeded to the throne 
in 1285. One of the most remarkable events of the reign 
of this monarch, was the suppression of the order of the 
Knights Templars. Charges of the greatest magnitude 
being brought against them, Philip ordered all the templars 
of his kingdom to be arrested on the same day. 

A committee was appointed at Paris, before which one 
hundred and forty knights were examined, all of whom 
with the exception of three, freely acknowledged them- 
selves guilty of the denial of Christ, of sacrilege and other 
enormous crimes. 

7. But as the persons accused belonged to an order which 
was religious as well as military, it became necessary to re- 
fer the affair to the ecclesiastical authorities. Accordingly, 
a general council was convened by pope Clement V., at 
Vienne, before which the investigation into the conduct of 
the templars and their trials, which had now occupied near= 
ly five years, was laid. After a deliberation of several 
months, the order was suppressed; and the property be- 
longing to it, was transferred to the order of the Knights 
Hospitallers, of St. John, who were still fighting the bat- 
tles of Christendom against the infidels, from whom they 
had lately recovered the island of Rhodes. It appears, that 
the order of the templars, though generally corrupt, was not 

8 



178 FRANCE. 

equally so in ail places ; which fact accounts for the differ- 
ent treatment its members received in different countries. 
Many were acquitted, particularly in Germany and Spain; 
some were condemned to perpetual or temporary imprison- 
ment ; while others, who instead of repenting, obstinately 
retracted the free avowal of their guilt, were delivered to 
the secular power, to be punished according- to the rigor of 
the law. Fifty-nine were burnt at Paris and several others 
in the south of France. 

8. Philip died in 1314, leaving his dominions to his son 
Louis X., surnamed Hutin or Wrangler, who was succeed- 
ed after a reign of a few months by his brother Philip V., 
whose short reign was distinguished for his severity against 
the Jews. With the succession of Charles IV., ended the 
Capetian line of kings, A. D. 1328. 



SECTION 111. 

Branch of Valois ; from Philip VI. to Charles VIII., 
A. B. 1328, to 1498. 

1. On the death of the late monarch, the crown devolved 
upon Philip of Valois, the grandson of Philip III., the 
nearest male heir, as according to the laws of the kingdom, 
females were excluded from the throne. His succession 
however, was disputed by Edward III. of England, who 
claimed the crown of France in right of his mother, Isa- 
bella, the daughter of Philip the Fair. Philip maintained 
that a mother could not transmit to her issue, a right w hich 
she never possessed ; and the case being laid before the 
peers and barons of France, they unanimously declared in 
his favor. 

2. In the mean time, Edward prepared to enforce his 
claim by an appeal to arms. He invaded France with an 
army of 30,000 men, and gained the famous battle of Cres- 
sy, in which his eldest son, the Black Prince, (so called 
from the color of his armor,) first displayed those distin- 
guished military abilities which afterwards rendered him 
so illustrious. Edward pursuing his good fortune, besieg- 
ed and took Calais, which remained in the hands of the 
English, until the reign of Queen Alary. It was during 
the reign of Philip that the title of Dauphin, was given to 
the eldest son of the kins of France, 



FRANCE. 179 

3. Philip died in 1350, and was succeeded by his son John 
II. surnamed the Good. It was during the reign of this 
prince, that the famous battle of Poictiers was fought, in 
which Edward the Black Prince added to the glory which 
he had already gained at Cressy. The French monarch, 
at the head of 60,000 men, advanced against the Prince, 
whose army did not exceed 16,000 men ; still notwithstand- 
ing the disparity of numbers, the scale of victory turned 
in favor of the latter; the French were signally defeated, 
their king fell into the hands of the conquerors, and was 
led captive to London, The conduct of the Prince towards 
the fallen monarch, deserves the highest commendation. 
He endeavored to console him in his misfortune, waited on 
him at table, and in every manner in his power, manifested 
towards him the utmost courtesy and respect. John was 
afterwards released on condition that he should pay 1,500, 
000 pounds sterling as the price of his ransom. But on 
his return to France, finding himself unable to comply with 
his engagement, he returned again to England, saying that 
" If honor were banished from every other place, it should 
find an asylum in the breasts of kings." He was received 
with every mark of respect by Edward, who assigned him 
as his residenee, Lavoy Palace, where he shortly afterwards 
died, A. D. 1364. 

4. On the death of John, Charles V. surnamed the Wise, 
succeeded to the throne. This distinguished prince labored 
incessantly to retrieve the losses of the preceding reign, 
and so successful was he in his efforts, that in the course of 
a few years the English were expelled from all their pos- 
sessions in France, with the exception of Calais, Bayonne 
and Bourdeaux. Charles himself did not appear in the 
field, but from his cabinet directed the operations of his 
armies by his wise and prudent councils. He raised to the 
office of constable of France, the celebrated Bu Gueselin, 
one of the greatest generals of the age. Besides being an 
eminent statesman, Charles was a distinguished patron of 
literature ; he possessed a library of 900 volumes, which 
was a considerable number for the period, when the art of 
printing was yet undiscovered ; and he maybe regarded as 
the founder of the present magnificent royal library of Paris. 
On his death, in 1380, his son Charles VI., surnamed the 
Well Beloved, ascended the throne. 

5. The reign of this sovereign was signally unfortunate. 
He fell into a state of insanity, which rendered him inca- 
pable of attending to the administration of the government, 



180 FRANCE. 

In consequence of the king's incapacity, regents were ap» 
pointed, whose misconduct threw the kingdom into a civil 
war. During these calamities which afflicted France, 
Henry V. of England invaded the country, and gained the 
memorable battle of Agincourt. The consequence of this 
victory and other advantages gained by Henry, enabled him 
to conclude a treaty, by which his succession to the throne 
of France was acknowledged on the death of Charles. 
Henry and Charles both died shortly after this event, A. 
D. 1422. 

6. Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious, asserted his 
right to the throne of his father, while at the same time, the 
infant Henry VI. of England, was proclaimed king of 
France, under the regency of his uncle, the Duke of Bed- 
ford. The English laid siege to Orleans, a place of the 
greatest importance, and so successful were they in their 
operations against this and other places, that the affairs of 
France began to wear the most gloomy aspect ; they were 
however, suddenly restored by one of the most extraordi- 
nary events recorded in history. 

7. When the hope of saving Orleans was almost aban- 
doned, a young girl named Joan, about seventeen years of 
age, who had lived an humble life in a village on the bor- 
ders of Lorraine, presented herself to the governor of Vau- 
couleur, and maintained with much earnestness, that she 
had been sent by divine commission to raise the siege of 
that city, and procure the coronation of Charles in the city 
of Rheims. After undergoing a most rigid examination be- 
fore a committee of persons appointed for that purpose, and 
also before the court and king himself, it was generally ad- 
mitted that the commission was supernatural. She was ac- 
cordingly entrusted with the liberation of Orleans. As she 
approached the city her presence inspired the inhabitants 
with confidence, while it spread dismay and consternation 
among the English, who hastily raised the siege and retired 
with precipitation, but being pursued by the heroine at the 
head of the French army, they were entirely defeated at 
Patay, with a loss of nearly 5,000 men, while the French 
lost only one of their number. From this event Joan was 
called the Maid of Orleans. 

8. The second part of her mission which yet remained 
to be accomplished, was equally arduous and dangerous. 
The city of Kheims and the intermediate country, being in 
possession of the English or their allies, presented appar- 
ently insurmountable difficulties. Charles however, plac- 



FRANCE. 181 

ing full confidence in her guidance, commenced his march, 
and as he advanced every obstacle disappeared ; the citi- 
zens of Rheims, having expelled the garrison, received him 
with every demonstration of joy. After the coronation was 
performed, Joan threw herself at the feet of Charles, de- 
claring that her commission was accomplished, and solic- 
ited leave to return to her former humble station ; but the 
king unwilling to part with her services so soon, requested 
her to remain for some time with the army, with which 
at length she complied. She afterwards attempted to raise 
the siege of the city of Campiegne ; but her good fortune 
seemed to have deserted her; she fell into the hands of the 
English, who, to gratify their revenge for the many losses 
they sustained through her valor, condemned her, under a 
charge of various pretended crimes, and caused her to be 
burnt in the public square at Rouen. 

9. By this cruel measure, the English hoped to check the 
success that had attended the operations of Charles. In 
this, however, they were disappointed: such was the im- 
pulse which the heroine had given to the affairs of France, 
that the English, in a few years, were expelled from all 
their possessions in the country, with the exception of Ca- 
lais. Charles passed the remainder of his reign in improv- 
ing the internal condition of his kingdom. The close of 
his life was imbittered by the unnatural conduct of his son, 
who attempted to poison his father. He died in 1464, a 
prince of acknowledged virtue, justice and discretion. 

10. Louis XI, who succeeded to the throne, was distin- 
guished for the cruelty and tyranny exercised against his 
subjects. He left, however, some good regulations for the 
encouragement of commerce and the promotion of justice. 
His severity occasioned a revolt, which was called, " the 
war of the public good." His sanguinary disposition was 
displayed on a certain occasion, when he pronounced the 
sentence of death on one of his nobles ; he ordered that the 
children of the unfortunate victim should be placed under 
the scaffold, that they might be sprinkled with the blood of 
their dying parent. His own life was rendered miserable, 
particularly towards the close, from the knowledge that he 
was despised by his subjects, and from the terrors of a guil- 
ty conscience. 

11. Charles VIII., the son of Louis, succeeded to the 
throne in 1483, at the age of 13 years, under the regency 
of his sister, the princess Ann. His father had acquired a 
claim to the kingdom of Naples; the young king on com- 



182 FRANCE. 

ing of age, undertook an expedition against that country, 
which he easily subdued. Charles, who was remarkable 
for the sweetness and affability of his deposition, died in 
the 28th year of his age, and with him ended the direct 
line of the house of Valois. 



SECTION IV. 

From the accession of Louis XII., to the reign of Henry 
HI., A. D. 1498, to 1589. 

1. The duke of Orleans, who was the nearest heir, after 
the death of Charles, succeeded to the throne of France 
under the title of Louis XII. He was a wise and popular 
sovereign; by his frugal policy he greatly diminished the 
burden of taxes, and gained the title of the Father of his 
people. Being urged to punish those who had been his 
enemies during the preceding reign, he replied, "It is un- 
worthy of the king of France, to avenge the injuries done 
to the duke of Orleans." 

2. He reduced Milan and Genoa, and prosecuted his 
claim to Naples, with some advantage, but was ultimately 
unsuccessful. He joined the League of Cambray against 
Venice, which, on account of its wealth acquired by its 
commerce, excited the jealousy of its neighbors ; but the 
confederates afterwards quarrelled among themselves, and 
a new league was formed against France. The French, 
under the command of Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, 
gained an important victory over the confederates at the 
battle of Ravenna, in which the duke lost his life. After 
the death of this distinguished general, Louis soon lost all 
his possessions in Italy, and was compelled to evacuate the 
country. Before he was able to recover these losses, he 
suddenly died ; an event which filled the hearts of his sub- 
jects with the deepest sorrow; the exclamation that the 
good king was dead, was heard on every side. 

3. As the late king had died without leaving any male 
issue, his cousin, the earl of Angouleme, ascended the 
throne under the title of Francis I. Francis, then in the 
flower of his age, was of a romantic disposition and fond 
of military glory, and soon distinguished himself by the 
conquest of the Milanese. On the death of Maximilian, em- 



FRANCE. 183 

peror of Germany, in 1519, Francis and Charles V. of 
Spain, became rival candidates for the imperial throne. 
Charles was the successful candidate; and Francis, deem- 
ing himself injured, availed himself of this pretense for 
commencing - hostilities against his rival. 

4. His first operations against Navarre, were successful; 
but an unfortunate misunderstanding taking place between 
Francis and the high constable, de Bourbon, one of the 
ablest of his generals ; the latter basely abandoned his coun- 
try and his sovereign, and offered his services to the em- 
peror Charles. Bourbon fought against the French in the 
battle of Biagrassa, in which they were defeated with the 
loss of their celebrated general, the illustrious Bayard, sur- 
named the Knight without fear and ivithout reproach. 
Bourbon is said to have wept like a child, over the dying 
hero ; " Weep not for me," said the magnanimous Bayard, 
" but for yourself. I die in the service of my country, you 
triumph in the ruin of yours." 

5. Francis, now taking upon himself the command of 
the army, hastened into Italy and laid siege to Pavia, but 
was there defeated and taken prisoner by the imperialists, 
under the command of Bourbon. After thirteen months of 
captivity, Francis obtained his liberty, and having crossed 
the boundary of his own dominions, he mounted his horse 
and waving his hat, he exclaimed, " I am yet a king." 
The conditions on which he obtained his release, were so 
unreasonable, that Francis, on regaining his liberty, refused 
to comply with them. The violation of this treaty, again 
involved the two rival sovereigns in another sanguinary war. 
The sovereign pontiff having declared in favor of Francis, 
Bourbon, who commanded for Charles, laid siege to Rome, 
but was killed in an attempt to storm the walls. 'J ne city 
however, was taken, and for two months, abandoned to the 
pillage of the infuriated soldiery, during which time it pre- 
sented a scene of ruinous desolation, more frightful than 
chat which it endured, when it fell beneath the hand of the 
Goth or Vandal. 

6. After the war had raged for some time, with but little 
advantage on either side, a truce was concluded, and the 
two rival monarchs were brought to a personal interview at 
Jligues Mortes, in France, where the warmest expressions 
of friendship passed between them. The following year, 
Charles obtained permission to pass through France on his 
way to the Netherlands ; he remained for six days at Paris, 
where he was entertained with great magnificence. The 



184 FRANCE. 

war was again renewed between the two sovereigns, re- 
specting Milan, which terminated unfavorable to Francis, 
who died shortly after peace was restored, in the 52d year 
of his age, A. D. 1547. Francis possessed, in many re- 
spects, the reputation of a great sovereign. His impetuous 
courage, his frank and generous disposition, gained him the 
affection of his subjects. He was a liberal patron of liter- 
ature and the arts, which made great progress in France 
during his reign, and the French court acquired that polish 
and refinement, which have since rendered it so conspicu- 
ous. 

7. Henry II., who succeeded Francis, was brave, affa- 
ble, and polite; he inherited in some degree, the abilities 
and courage of his father. His reign, which continued for 
thirteen years, was almost one uninterrupted series of hos- 
tilities with Charles V., and his son Philip II. of Spain. 
Henry gained an important advantage over the imperialists 
at the siege of Metz; but Philip, in his turn, gained the 
famous victory of St. Quentin. The reign of Henry was 
also signalized by the recovery of Calais, which was taken 
after a siege of eight days, by the celebrated duke of Gaise, 
after it had remained in the possession of the English for 
210 years. Henry's severity against the Huguenots, gave 
rise to those sanguinary civil wars, which for several suc- 
ceeding reigns, distracted and desolated France. His death 
was occasioned by an accident, which happened to him at 
a tournament. 

8. He was succeeded by his son, Francis II., who, afier a 
short reign of one year, left the throne to his brother, 
Charles IX., then a boy in the tenth year of his age, who 
commenced his reign under the regency of his mother, 
Catherine de Medicis, At this time the Protestant religion 
began to make considerable progress in France, and had 
gained the patronage of several distinguished men, among 
whom were the Prince of Conde and Admiral Coligni. The 
leading men in the administration, were the celebrated 
Duke of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine, 
In order to bring about an accommodation and to settle the 
difficulties without further bloodshed, a conference was held 
at Poissy, for the purpose of discussing the points in dis- 
pute between the Catholics and Protestants. The confer- 
ence was attended by the king and the most prominent per- 
sonages of the court. The Protestant cause was supported 
by the celebrated Theadore Beza, while the Catholic doc- 
trine was defended by the distinguished Cardinal of Lorraine* 



FRANCE. 185 

9. After this conference, an edict was published granting 
important privileges to the Protestants. But the spirit of 
discontent still prevailed between the two parties, and the 
flame of civil war again burst forth and deluged the fairest 
portion of France in devastation and blood. The Catholics 
under the command of the Duke of Guise and Montmor- 
ency, defeated the Huguenots under the Prince of Conde 
and admiral Coligni, in several engagements. During the 
contest, the Protestants lost their most able leader, the 
Prince of Conde, who fell in battle ; while on the other hand 
Charles had to lament the loss of the firmest support of 
his throne, the Duke of Guise, who was cut off by assas- 
sination. Peace was at length restored, and the Protestants 
obtained free toleration in religion. 

18. The most memorable transaction in the reign of 
Charles was the massacre of the Protestants, which took 
place on St. Bartholomew's day. So various and contra- 
dictory are the accounts given of this event by different 
writers, as to the number of the victims, and the motives that 
prompted it, that it is a difficult task at the present time, to 
arrive at the true state of the facts. On the occasion of the 
marriage of the sister of Charles to the king of Navarre, 
Coligni and other distinguished Protestant leaders were in- 
vited to court. During the celebration of the nuptial cere- 
monies, various circumstances happened, which contributed 
to bring about the odious measure that followed. As Co- 
ligni passed through the streets, he was severely wounded 
by an assassin. The public voice attributed the attempt to 
the young Duke of Guise, in revenge for the murder of his 
father at the siege of Orleans; it proceeded however, from 
the queen's mother, Catherine de Medicis, who was alarmed 
at the gradual influence which the Admiral seemed to ac- 
quire over the mind of Charles. 

11. The wounds which Coligni had received, were not 
dangerous ; but his followers crowded to his residence ; 
their threats of vengeance terrified the queen ; and in a 
secret council the king was prevailed upon to give his sanc- 
tion to the destruction of the leaders of ihe Protestant party. 
From the close connection of events immediately preceding 
the massacre, it would seem that it originated in the animos- 
tiy of the French court against the protestant leaders, and was 
dictated rather by a momentary impulse, than by any stud- 
ied or preconcerted plan. The young king, whose mind 
was harrassed by the frequent revolts of the Huguenots, 
against his authority, was only induced to consent to this 
8* 



186 FRANCE. 

cruel measure, after the positive assurance of his mother 
and chief counsellors, that his safety required that the lead- 
ers of the party should be cut off, and that, if he waited 
until morning, his most faithful officers, his family, and 
perhaps himself, would be sacrificed to their vengeance. 

12. In this state of mind, he gave his consent to the 
projected massacre, which took place during the night of 
the 23d of August, and a part of the following day. The 
residence of Coligni was forced, and he was put to death, 
with his principal counsellors ; the populace joined in the 
work of blood, and every Huguenot who fell in their way, 
was sacrificed to their fury. Although the massacre was 
only intended for the capital, still it extended to several 
provinces ; the governors, though instructed to prevent 
similar excesses, had not always the power or the will to 
check the fury of the people, and the bloody tragedy of 
Paris was imitated in several other towns. With regard 
to the number of the victims, it is impossible to speak with 
certainty. Some writers exaggerate the number to seven- 
ty thousand ; others estimate thirty, twenty, or fifteen 
thousand. The reformed martyrologist adopted a means 
of ascertaining the real number, by procuring from the 
ministers in the different towns, where the massacre took 
place, a list of the names of the persons who suffered. He 
published the result in 1582, and in all France he could 
discover the names of no more than seven hundred and 
eighty-six persons. 

13. Charles, in order to palliate the shame of this mur- 
derous edict against the Huguenots, wrote to every court 
in Europe, stating, that having just detected their horrid 
plots against his authority and person, he was fortunate 
enough to escape from the imminent danger to which he was 
exposed, by cutting off the leaders of the party. Many, 
deceived by this statement, and yet unacquainted with the 
true nature of the facts, congratulated him on his good for- 
tune. Among others, Pope Gregory XIII. , on receiving the 
account' of the transaction, as given by Charles, offered up 
public thanks, not that he rejoiced at the death of the sup- 
posed traitors, but for the preservation of the French mon- 
arch and his kingdom, from ruin. 

14. Charles did not long survive this event; he died 
shortly afterward of a pulmonary complaint, and was suc- 
ceeded in the throne by his brother Henry III., a weak, 
and fickle prince. In the beginning of his reign, he grant- 
ed important privileges to the Protestants, but he after- 



FRANCE. 187 

wards joined the League, projected for the defense of the 
slate and religion, and took the field against them. By his 
conduct he lost the confidence of both parties ; he was 
finally assassinated by James Clement, a Dominican friar, 
in the forth year of his reign, A. D. 1588. 



SECTION V. 

House of Bourbon; From Henry IV., to the Death of 
Louis XV., A. D. 1589, to 1774. 

1. On the death of Henry III., the king of Navarre as- 
cended the throne of France, under the title of Henry IV., 
who was afterwards called the Great. His accession was 
however, greatly opposed by a powerful party in the state. 
The Cardinal of Bourbon was proclaimed king, by the 
army of the League, then under the command of the duke 
of Mayenne, and took the title of Charles X. But the 
army was signally dented by Henry, in the famous battle 
of Ivry. The difficulties and dangers which surrounded 
Henry, daily increased. He had been educated in the re- 
formed religion, which he still continued to profess, while 
the great part of his subjects were Catholics. The king 
began now seriously to turn his mind to the subject of re- 
ligion, and having asked several Protestant divines, if he 
could be saved by professing the Catholic doctrine, and be- 
ing answered in the affirmative, he concluded that it would 
be a safer policy, in his peculiar situation, to embrace that 
religion. Accordingly, in 1593, he abjured Protestantism 
and declared himself a Catholic* 

2. The event was productive of beneficial results to 
France; his claim was immediately acknowledged by all 
orders of the state, and the sanguinary civil wars which 
had so long afflicted the kingdom, were happily terminated. 
Henry, having gained quiet possession of the throne, was 
governed by principles of the wisest policy. By the cele- 
brated Edict of Nantes, he granted to the Protestants the 
free exercise of their religion, confirmed all their rights and 
privileges, and gave them free admission into all the offices 
of honor and emolument. 

3. Henry now turned his attention towards the improve- 
ment of his kingdom. A civil war of nearly thirty years 



188 FRANCE. 

duration, had produced the most calamitous effects. The 
land was untilled, the people poor and wretched, the crown 
loaded with debt. But by the wise and prudent measures 
of Henry, these evils were soon removed, and prosperity 
began again to diffuse itself throughout the kingdom. The 
wisest of his counsellors, was the Baron de Rosny, after- 
wards Duke of Sully, in whom he found an able minister 
and a faithful friend. 

4. Henry, by his great abilities, having elevated France 
from the wretched condition in which he found her, at his 
accession to the throne, to a high state of prosperity and 
happiness, fell a victim to the fanaticism of a monk, named 
Ravaillac, who had long planned his death. As the king 
rode through the streets of the capital, he was accidentally 
stopped by. some obstruction in the way; Ravaillac, who 
was always on the watch, seized this favorable moment, 
mounted on the wheel of the carriage and stabbed the king 
twice before any one could oppose him. Thus fell Henry 
IV., who may justly be ranked among the greatest of the 
French monarchs, in the 57th year of his age, and in the 
21st of his reign, A. D. 1810. 

5. When the fatal event was made known in Paris, the 
whole city presented a scene of mourning. Ravaillac was 
seized and put to the most cruel tortures, to induce him to 
confess the names of those who were his accomplices ; but 
to the last, he persisted in maintaining, that no one, except 
himself, was concerned in the action. As a sovereign, 
Henry was deservedly great ; to promote the happiness of 
his people, seems to have been his predominate passion ; 
he was kind and familiar to the lowest of his subjects, and 
was beloved by them, to a degree bordering on enthusiasm. 
His private life was far from being so commendable, and 
the manners of his courtiers were rendered r profligate from 
the example of their sovereign. 

6. Louis XIII., the son of the late monarch, succeeded 
to the throne at the age of nine years, under the regency 
of his mother Mary of Medicis, who displeased the no- 
bility by her partiality for Italians ; and during her admin- 
istration, the kingdom relapsed into many disorders. Louis, 
on assuming the reins of government, chose for his prime 
minister the famous Cardinal Richelieu, one of the greatest 
men of his age. During the reign of this monarch, the 
kingdom was again distracted by civil war : the Protestants 
attempted to throw off their allegiance, and to establish an 
independent state, selecting Rochelle for the capital. Riche- 



FRANCE. 189 

lieu laid siege to this city, which finally surrendered after 
an obstinate resistance for twelve months. The fall of this 
city terminated the cival war, and greatly weakened the 
Protestant power in France. A second rebellion was ex- 
cited by the Duke of Orleans, the king's brother, and sup- 
ported by the Duke of Montmorency ; but it was finally 
crushed, and Montmorency executed for treason. 

7. The great abilities of Richelieu were conspicuous in 
all his undertakings. While he extended the glory of 
France, and commanded the respect of all the powers of 
Europe, he became also the zealous patron of literature and 
science, and instituted the French Academy. He died in 
1642, and was followed to the tomb in the succeeding year, 
by Louis himself in the 43rd year of his age, and the 34th 
of his reign. 

8. Louis XIV., succeeded his father at the early age of 
five years, under the regency of his mother, Ann of Aus- 
tria. She made choice of Cardinal Mazarin for her prime 
minister, whose administration was particularly distinguish- 
ed by the defeat of the Spaniards at Rocroy, Friburg, and 
Lens, who taking advantage of the king's minority had 
commenced hostilities. On the death of Mazarin, Louis, 
at the age of 22, took upon himself the entire direction of 
the affairs of government. To the happy choice he made 
of his ministers, may be attributed the brilliant achieve- 
ments that distinguished the early part of his reign. The 
financial affairs were regulated by the famous Colbert, an 
able and sagacious statesman; his armies were commanded 
by the princes of Conde and Turenne, two of the greatest 
generals of the age ; while the genius of Vauban was em- 
ployed in fortifying his towns. 

9. He subdued Frenche Compte, which he annexed to 
France ; conquered a part of Netherlands ; overran Alsace, 
and twice desolated the Palatinate. Alarmed at the suc- 
cess that attended the arms of the French monarch, the 
league of Augsburg was formed, in which Holland, Spain, 
Sweden, and^ several other of the German States united 
against him. In 1701, a second league was entered into 
by England, Germany and Holland, against the power of 
France. The splendid career of victory which marked 
the early part of his reign, was now exchanged for a series 
of reverses, which attended the close of his long and event- 
ful life. His armies were no longer directed by the mas- 
ter spirits of Turenne and Conde ; they had moreover, to 
contend with the genius of the Duke of Marlborough and 



190 FRANCE. 

Prince Eugene, who gained over them the celebrated vic- 
tories of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet; 
and at the peace of Utrich, Louis lost nearly all the advan- 
tages he had formerly gained. 

10. Louis died in the 78th year of his age, and the 73rd 
of his reign, A. D. 1715. His reign, which is one of the 
longest recorded in history, is illustrated by many brilliant 
achievements. The most impolitic measure of his long 
administration, and one that has incurred the censure of 
subsequent historians, was the revocation of the Edict of 
Nantes, granted by Henry IV. for the toleration of the 
Protestant worship. By this act, all the Protestant minis- 
ters who refused to abjure their tenets, were commanded 
to quit the kingdom within the space of two months. As 
to the other Protestants, they were allowed to remain in 
France, where they might freely carry on their business, 
"without being molested or harrassed on account of their 
religion," to use the words of the repealing act. Many 
however, preferred to follow their ministers into exile ; but 
as to the number of persons who thus went into banish- 
ment, it is impossible to ascertain. Some authors swell 
the number to 500,000; while Larrey and Benoit, both 
Protestant writers, admit it to have been about 200,000. 
The Duke of Burgundy, whose candor and ample means 
of research entitle him to credit, assures us that the French 
refugees did not exceed 60,000 in all. 

11. Although the king, with the advice of his ministers, 
adopted these severe measures against the Huguenots, it 
cannot be supposed that this portion of his subjects were 
entirely without blame ; their frequent manifestations of 
hostility to the government ; their many open revolts, 
which had plunged the kingdom into all the evils of civil 
war, might be offered as some palliation for the revocation 
of the Edict of Nantes. To this may be added the fact, 
that all the Protestant governments of Europe at the time, 
exercised the utmost severity against the Catholic portion 
of their subjects. This however, is but a feeble excuse; 
example is no palliation for a fault ; we, in a more enlight- 
ened and liberal age, disavow the spirit of persecution, 
even the shadow of intolerance. 

12. Louis is said to have been handsome in his person, 
and to have excelled in all the polite accomplishments of 
the age. The love of glory was his ruling passion ; this 
he pursued, not only by his military achievements and the 
splendor of his conquests, but also by the patronage which 



FRANCE. 191 

he gave to literature and science ; by promoting all the 
useful arts, and by giving encouragement to commerce, 
manufactures, and public works. The capital was embel- 
lished, the palaces of Versailles and Louvre were built; the 
canal of Languedoc and other useful works were construc- 
ted. The reign of Louis XIV. has been styled the Au- 
gustan Age of French Literature, and is distinguished for 
the number of eminent men who flourished during that pe- 
riod. Conde and Turenne at the head of his armies, have 
acquired imperishable fame ; Colbert in the cabinet ; Bos- 
suet, Fenelon, and Bourdaloue in sacred eloquence ; Pascal 
and Descartes in Mathematics and Philosophy ; Racine, 
Boileau, J. B. Rousseau in poetry. 

13. Louis XV., the great grandson of the late monarch, 
succeeded to the throne at the age of five years under the 
regency of the Duke of Orleans. The Dutchess of Vent- 
adour was appointed governness to the young king, a lady 
well qualified for the important charge reposed in her. 
Louis, on coming of age, chose for his chief minister the 
virtuous and amiable Cardinal Fleury, who was then in the 
73rd year of his age, but still retained his vigor and activi- 
ty till near ninety. By the wise and pacific councils of 
this distinguished man, the prosperity of France was re- 
vived and its tranquility preserved for near 20 years. 

14. After the death of Fleury, France was engaged in 
war of the Austrian Succession, which took place on the 
death of the emperor, Charles VI. The two competitors 
for the imperial throne, were Maria Theresa, the eldest 
daughter of the late emperor, and Charles the elector of 
Bavaria. The claim of the former was supported by Great 
Britain, w r hile the cause of the latter was espoused by 
France and Prussia. The English and their allies under 
George II., gained the battle of Dettingen, and the French 
in their turn obtained the victory at the battle of Frontenoy. 
Peace was restored by the treaty of Aix-Ia-Chapelle, and 
the claim of Maria Theresa was acknowledged. 

15. In 1755 war again was renewed between England 
and France, respecting their American possessions. This 
was terminated by the peace concluded at Paris in 1763, 
when the most important of the French possessions in 
North America, were ceded to Great Britain. Louis died 
in 1774, in the 65th year of his age, and in the 59th of his 
reign. 

The reign of this monarch and that of his predecessor, 
occupied the unexampled period of 132 years. 



FRANCE. 

SECTION VI. 

Louis XVI.; The Revolution; Buonaparte; Louis 
XVIII. ; Charles X. From A. D. 1774, to 1830. 

1. Louis XVI., the grand-son of the late king, succeed- 
ed to the throne in the twentieth year of his age. The 
situation of this virtuous and benevolent prince, was beset 
with difficulties of no ordinary character. The prodigality 
of his predecessor, had impoverished the nation and loaded 
the people with taxation; a general corruption of morals 
and contempt for religion, were manifested by those who 
were at the head of the government, while the principles of 
atheism, were widely disseminated through the writings of 
Voltaire, Rousseau and others. 

2. The deranged state of the finance, first claimed the 
attention of Louis. He placed at the head of this depart- 
ment, Turgot, an eminent statesman, and chose Males- 
he.rbes, as his prime minister. These distinguished men, 
after several unsuccessful attempts to remove the evils, and 
to reform the abuses of the state, resigned their situations 
and retired from office. The celebrated Nether, a native 
of Geneva, having succeeded Turgot at the head of the 
finance, pursued the same system of economy and reform ; 
but becoming unpopular with the courtiers, he was finally 
removed. 

3. About this period, two commissioners from the Uni- 
ted States, arrived at Paris, to solicit the aid of France 
in behalf of the Americans, who were then struggling for 
their independence against the power of Great Britain. Al- 
though the American envoys were at first denied an audi- 
ence in a public capacity, still the cause in which their 
country was engaged, excited the deepest sympathy among 
the French nobility, and obtained many private volunteers, 
among whom the Marquis de Lafayette, was the most 
conspicuous. "When the news of the failure of Burgoyne's 
expedition reached Paris, a favorable change took place in 
the French cabinet with regard to America. The queen, 
who had always favored the interest of the Americans, now 
espoused the cause for which they contended, with renew- 
ed ardor. The king and his ministers, who had hitherto 
acted with caution and reserve, at length determined open- 
ly to acknowledge the independence of the United States. 
Their commissioners, Franklin and Deane, were received 
as public ambassadors, and in February, 1778, a treaty of 



FRANCE. 193 

amity and commerce was signed between France and Amer- 
ica. 

As soon as this event was made public, the English am- 
bassador was immediately recalled from Paris, and war de- 
clared by Great Britain against France. 

4. Various causes have been assigned as the origin of the 
French Revolution. The public debt, which had been 
greatly increased by the benevolent efforts of Louis, in as- 
sisting the people of the United States in gaining their in- 
dependence, left the state of the finance in the most embar- 
rassed condition; the return of the French officers and sol- 
diers, after the successful termination of the American 
Revolution,, disseminated through France, a spirit in favor 
of liberty and republican principles; a general corruption 
of morals and open contempt for religion, became more 
prevalent, particularly among the higher orders of the state, 
while atheism and infidelity were daily increasing. These 
and other circumstances contributed towards exciting that 
fearful storm, which spread devastation and blood over the 
plains of France, and convulsed the whole continent of 
Europe. 

5. After every plan for restoring the deranged condition 
of the finance, had proved ineffectual, Louis convoked an 
assembly called the Notables, composed of persons select- 
ed from the highest orders of the state ; to whom it was 
proposed to levy a tax on all classes without exception, in 
proportion to their prosperity ; but they refused to sanc- 
tion this measure, as they perceived it would subject them 
to some personal sacrifices. After this, a demand was made 
for the convocation of the States- General, a body consist- 
ing of the three orders, nobility, clergy, and commons, 
which had not been assembled since the year 1614, and 
never had a regular existence. 

6. The assembly of the States- General convened on the 
5th of May, 1789, at Versailles, where it was addressed 
by the king in a mild and conciliatory speech. It was not 
long however, before the members of the assembly disa- 
greed among themselves; the commons, with such of the 
nobility and clergy as were disposed to join them, seized 
the legislative authority, declared themselves the represen- 
tatives of the people, and styled themselves the National 
Assembly. Of this body, Bailly was chosen president, 
while Mirabeau, and the Duke of Orleans, (a man of the 
most abandoned character,) were the two most prominent 
members. By the very first act of the National Ass em- 



194 FRANCE. 

bly, Louis found himself in a great measure, deprived of 
his authority, and all who refused to unite with the com- 
mons, saw themselves shut out from power, and all their 
rights and privileges invaded. 

7. While these things were transacting at Versailles, an 
insurrection broke out in Paris, which was characterized 
by the most ungovernable violence. The Hotel des Inva- 
lides, was taken by surprise, and 30,000 muskets were 
seized; the prison of Bastile was demolished, the gover- 
nor was massacred and his head fixed upon a pike, and 
carried through the streets, amidst the shouts of the infuri- 
ated rable. When the news of these violent proceedings 
reached Versailles, the king hastened to the capital, with 
the hope of being able to allay the tumult ; he addressed 
the multitude with the warmest expressions of friendship, 
and succeeded in restoring a temporary calm; after this he 
again returned to Versailles. But scarcely had he depart- 
ed, when the insurrection was renewed with increased vio- 
lence. The infuriated populace directed their vengeance 
against all those whom they considered their oppressors, 
and the whole city of Paris was deluged in blood. 

8. They finally proceeded to Versailles, and demanded 
that the king should return to the capital. In compliance 
with their request, the unfortunate monarch, accompanied 
by the royal family, left Versailles and proceeded on his 
way to Paris ; he was however, protected from violence 
through the influence and efforts of the Marquis de Lafay- 
ette, who commanded the national guard. 

9. The progress of the revolution now made rapid ad- 
vances; the States-General underwent a change and was 
styled the National Assembly ; the royal authority was 
nearly annihilated ; the privileges of the nobles and clergy 
were abolished; the church lands confiscated; the monas- 
teries suppressed, and France divided into eighty-three de- 
partments. 

The next measure of the National Assembly, was the 
formation of a new constitution, and from this circumstance 
it was styled, the Constituent Assembly. 

10. In the meantime, Louis and the royal family escaped 
from the palace of Tuilleries, and reached the frontiers of 
the kingdom, when they were detected and again brought 
back to Paris. The new constitution was at length com- 
pleted, and received the sanction of the king; it establish- 
ed a limited monarchy, and placed all orders of the state 
upon an equality. After this, the assembly dissolved itself 



FRANCE. 195 

on the 30th of September, 1791. The next assembly that 
met on the first of October, was styled the Legislative As- 
sembly. 

11. At an early stage of the revolution, various political 
clubs were formed, among which the Jacobin Club, (so 
called from the place of its meeting,) was the most pre- 
dominant. This factious association, long continued to 
possess a powerful influence in the capital and to govern 
the proceedings of the assembly. Another association, 
styled the Club of Cordeliers, surpassed the Jacobins in 
avowed contempt for religion, government, and law. On 
the 21st of September, 1792, a new body was con\ r ened, 
styled the National Convention ; at its first meeting, the 
regal government was abolished and France declared a re- 
public ; the next step was to consummate the drama; the 
king himself, was arraigned at the bar, to answer to various 
charges brought against him. 

12. In vain did Louis refute the absurd charges of which 
he was accused ; in vain did the eloquence of Deseze, vin- 
dicate his innocence ; his enemies thirsted for his blood, 
and the sentence of death was pronounced against him. 
The ill-fated monarch, who had passed through all these 
trying scenes with a fortitude not usually met with under 
similar circumstances, bowed in perfect resignation to that 
fate which he saw he was unable to avoid. On the 21st of 
January, 1793, after taking an affectionate leave of his 
queen, his children, and his sister, the princess Elizabeth, 
who had attended him in the most trying scenes, he was 
led to the place of execution. With a firm step he ascend- 
ed the scaffold ; for a moment he surveyed the multitude 
with calm serenity, and then addressed them in a few words : 
" I die innocent ; I pardon all my enemies, and I pray that 
France may not suffer for the blood she is about to shed." 
At this moment, the noise of the drums drowned his voice ; 
he then calmly placed his head under the guillotine, and as 
the axe descended, his confessor exclaimed, "son of St. 
Louis ascend to heaven." Thus perished Louis XVI. in 
the 39th year of his age, a prince whose only fault seems 
to have been the love of his people. 

13. After the death of the king, his amiable and virtuous 
consort, Marie Antoinette, was marked out for destruction. 
On 16th of October, 1793, having received the sentence of 
death, she was brought from the prison, meanly clad, with 
her hands bound behind, and conducted to the place of ex- 
ecution in a common cart, attended by her confessor, the 



196 FRANCE. 

curate of St. Landry. As she passed through the streets, 
she occasionally raised her languid eyes and gazed for 
moment on the words Liberty and Equity, inscribed on 
the houses. On the scaffold she conducted herself with 
her usual fortitude, until she was desired to lay her head 
upon the block ; at this awful moment she grew pale and 
became apparently insensible. She was beheaded amidst 
the furious cries of Vive la Republique. 

14. During the May of 1794, the amiable and beautiful 
princess Elizabeth, the sister of Louis, was brought forth 
to execution ; and about a year later, the young dauphin, an 
interesting child, died in prison of a disease contracted 
from confinement and from the barbarous treatment he re- 
ceived from the guards. Of all the members of the royal 
family, the daughter of Louis, afterwards dutchess of An- 
gouleme, was the only one who did not fall a victim to the 
furious storm that desolated France. 

15. The National Convention was soon divided into 
furious factions, of which the principal were the Mountain 
party, headed by Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, men of 
the most unparalleled depravity and cruelty ; and the Gi- 
rondists, of which Brissot, Vergniaud and Condorcet, 
were the leaders, and were less extravagant in their views. 
like Mountain party, under Robespierre and his associates, 
whose bloody dominion is styled, "the reign of terror," 
paving gained the ascendancy, committed the most fearful 
massacres. Brissot and Vergniaud, the leaders of the Gi- 
rondists, with 20 of their partizans, fell a sacrifice to the 
vengeance of the predominant faction. That monster of 
vice and cruelty, the Duke of Orleans, suffered the same 
fate, from the hands of those very men, whom he had been 
instrumental in bringing into power. 

16. The Convention now indulged in the most extrava- 
gant excesses. On motion of Gobet, archbishop of Paris, 
the Christian religion was suppressed and a decree passed, 
declaring, that the only deities hereafter to be worshipped 
in*France, should be Liberty, Equality and Reason ; a re- 
publican calendar was established ; the Sunday was abolish- 
ed ; and in its place every tenth day was appointed as a 
day of rest. The churches were despoiled of their orna- 
ments and treasures, even the bells were melted and cast 
into cannon. 

17. After these extraordinary proceedings, the Conven- 
tion was again divided into two violent parties; Robespier- 
re at the head of one and Danton the leader of the other, 



FRANCE. 197 

Robespierre prevailed, and all his most conspicuous oppo- 
lents were brought to the guillotine ; but his own bloody 
;areer was soon destined to terminate ; being condemned 
m a charge of tyranny, he was executed in July 1794. Af- 
er the fall of Robespierre, the Jacobin club was suppressed, 
md during the following year, a third Convention was 
brmed, and the executive power vested in five directors. 

18. The sovereigns of Europe, alarmed at the extrava- 
gant proceedings of the revolution in France, began to con- 
iider the propriety of uniting their forces, in order to op- 
)ose its fearful progress. At an early stage of the convul- 
don, a coalition was formed between Prussia and Austria, 
or the purpose of re-establishing the royal authority and 
estoring tranquility to the country. After the execution 
)f Louis, the Jirst of the five great coalitions was formed 
>etween Great Britain, Holland, Russia, and Spain, against 
France. The combined forces having invaded France, 
inder the command of the Duke of Brunswick, were com- 
:ompletely overthrown. 

19. The French elated by this triumph, began to think 
»f carrying their arms into the dominions of their assailants. 
Accordingly, under the command of Dumouriez, they sub- 
lued the Netherlands, Holland, Switzerland, and a part of 
Germany. In 1796, the command of the French army 
vas given to Napoleon Buonaparte, then a young man in 
he 27th year of his age, who had previously distinguished 
limself at the siege of Toulon. This extraordinary man 
oon astonished the whole continent of Europe by the bril- 
iancy of his victories. He completed the conquest of Italy, 
nd compelled the Austrians to sign the treaty of Campo 
? ormio, by which the French conquests in the Netherlands 
vere confirmed. The Venetian territories were given up 
o Austria, and Milanese was ceded to the Cisalpine Re- 
mblic, which was newly formed out of the Austrian and 
-*apal territories in Italy. 

20. Buonaparte next directed his victorious arms against 
Cgypt, defeated the Mamelukes in the famous battle of the 

yramids, and took possession of Cairo and all the Delta, 
n 1798, the French fleet was defeated by the English un- 
er the celebrated Nelson, in the Bay of Aboukir. In 
799 a second coalition was formed between England and 
lussia, in which Austria and several other powers after- 
wards engaged. During the campaign which followed, the 
''rench were most unfortunate. The Austrians under the 
Archduke Charles, and the Russians under their general 



198 FRANCE. 

Suwarrow, gained several important victories in the north 
of Italy and in Germany, and by uniting their forces, they 
threatened the frontiers of France. 

21 . At this crisis, Buonaparte found it necessary to return 
to Paris to remedy the disorders, caused by the misconduct 
of the Directory at home. By the aid of his partizans, 
Foucke, Talleyrand, and others, he succeeded in abolishing 
entirely the Directory, framed a new constitution, and 
caused himself to be elected first consul. From this mo- 
ment, the affairs of France took a new turn ; Bounaparte, 
finding himself placed beyond all control, by his energy 
and activity, surmounted every obstacle caused by the in- 
trigues of his enemies ; and by suppressing various factions 
which had long existed in the country, succeeded in restor- 
ing order and tranquility in every department of the gov- 
ernment. 

22. Placing himself again at the head of his army, he 
effected the celebrated passage of the Alps, and defeated the 
Austrians in the memorable battle of Marengo ; this victo- 
ry was followed by a second defeat of the Austrians at Ho- 
henlinden, by the French under Moreau. These and oth- 
er advantages on the part of France, were followed by the 
peace of Luneville, with Austria and the German empire ; 
and in the succeeding year, 1802, after the peace of Amiens 
with England, Europe for the first time since the com- 
mencement of the revolution, enjoyed the blessing of uni- 
versal tranquility. 

23. Buonaparte spent the short interval that elapsed be- 
tween the cessation of war and the renewal of hostilities, 
in performing various acts of public utility. In compliance 
with a previous contract with Pope Pius VII., he re-estab- 
lished the Christian religion, which had been suppressed 
by order of the Convention. He published a civil code ; 
offered great facilities to commerce ; and greatly embellish- 
ed the city of Paris by new buildings and monuments. 
But at the same time his course was marked with cruelty 
and blood ; he exercised the utmost rigor against Moreau 
and Pichegru, two illustrious generals, who were accused 
of participating in a conspiracy ; the former was exiled, 
and the latter strangled in prison, while a number of others 
were brought to the guillotine. The duke of aVEnghien, 
a prince of the Bourbon family, after a mock trial, was 
shot during the night at the castle of Vincennes. 

24. During these transactions, the mind of Buonaparte 
was actively engaged in maturing schemes of higher am- 



FRANCE. 199 

bilion. After causing himself to be elected consul for life, 
with power to appoint a successor, he began to think of 
assuming the sceptre. Addresses were made by the civil 
and military bodies offering him the imperial dignity, which 
he condescended to accept; he was accordingly crowm-d in 
1804, by the Pope, Emperor of France, and in the follow- 
ing year, he assumed the title of King of Italy. 

25. The peace of Amiens was of short duration. In 
1803, the war had been renewed between England and 
France ; and in 1805, a third coalition was formed by 
England, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and afterwards by Prus- 
sia. The emperor, immediately placing himself at the 
head of his army, took the field against the powers com- 
bined against him. At Ulm he captured the Austrian army 
of 33,000 men under Mack ; and in the memorable battle 
of Austerlitz, he defeated the united forces of Russia and 
Austria ; at this battle the three emperors were present. 
This brilliant victory terminated the campaign, and brought 
about the peace of Presburg, by which Austria ceded to 
France her Venetian territories. A few weeks previous to 
the battle of Austerlitz, the English fleet under Lord Nel- 
son, gained a great victory off cape Trafalgar, over the 
combined fleets of France and Spain. The English cap- 
tured 19 ships of the line, but had to lament the loss of 
their celebrated Admiral, who fell in the action. 

26. As the king of Naples had permitted the English 
and Russian army to pass through his dominions, he drew 
upon himself the indignation of the emperor of France, 
who deposed him and placed his brother, Joseph Bouna- 
parte, upon the Neapolitan throne. He next compelled 
the Dutch to receive his brother Louis, as king of Holland. 
After this he subverted the constitution of the German em- 
pire, and formed a union of the several states, under the 
title of the " Confederation ol the Rhine;" obliged Francis 
II. to resign his title of Emperor of Germany and king of 
the Romans, and take that of Emperor of Austria; and 
raised the electors of Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Saxony, 
to the rank of kings. 

27. In 1806, a fourth coalition was formed, in which 
Russia, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and England, united 
against France. The emperor with his usual good fortune, 
defeated the Prussians in the great battles of Jena and 
Auerstadt ; immediately entered Berlin, and here com- 
menced the Continental system, against English commerce, 
declaring the British islands in a state of blockade, and or- 



200 FRANCE. 

dering all ports to be closed against them. Peace was re- 
stored in the following year, by the treaty of Tilsit, when 
Buonaparte bestowed on his brother Jerome, the provinces 
wrested from Prussia, which he erected into the new king- 
dom of Westphalia. When the news of the Berlin de- 
cree reached England, the British government issued their 
orders in council, by which all neutral vessels, trading 
with France, were compelled to stop at a British port and 
pay a duty. In consequence of these orders, the emperor, 
who proceeded to Italy after the peace of Tilsit, issued his 
Milan decree, by which all vessels, submitting to the Brit- 
ish search or consenting, to any pecuniary exaction, were 
confiscated. 

28. Elated by the astonishing success that attended his 
arms, the emperor of France gave full scope to his ambition 
and set at defiance all principles of justice and moderation. 
He next fixed his attention upon Portugal, and so decisive 
was he in the execution of his plans, that the royal family 
was forced to quit the kingdom and embark for Brazil. 
He compelled Charles IV. of Spain, to abdicate his crown 
in favor of his brother, Joseph Bounaparte, who was, in 
consequence, transferred to the Spanish throne, and Murat, 
who had married the sister of Napoleon, was raised to the 
throne of Naples. 

29. The Spaniards in this emergency, applied for aid to 
England, who readily granted them assistance ; this circum- 
stance gave rise to the Peninsula war, which continued to 
rage from 1808 to 1813. 

In the mean time, war again broke out between France 
and Austria, which Buonaparte prosecuted with his usual 
success. Having gained several important victories over 
the Austrians, at Jibensberg, Ratisbon, and Wagram, he 
compelled the emperor Francis to submit to a humiliating 
treaty at Vienna, by which he agreed to accede to the 
continental system, and to give his daughter, Maria Louisa, 
in marriage to the emperor of France. In consequence of 
this treaty, Buonaparte was solemnly divorced from the 
Empress Josephine, a woman of the most amiable charac- 
ter, and become allied to the imperial house of Austria. 

30. By the treaty of Tilsit, Alexander, the emperor of 
Russia, had acceded to the continental system against Eng- 
land, and agreed to exclude British goods from his domin- 
ions ; but finding this measure extremely injurious to his 
subjects, he thought proper to retract his assent. In con- 
sequence of this, Buonaparte determined on the invasion of 



FRANCE. 201 

the Russian empire. Early in the spring of 1812, he col- 
lected an army consisting of 400,000 infantry, 60,000 cav- 
alry, and 1,200 pieces of artillery, and on the 24lh of June, 
he crossed the Niemen, on this memorable expedition. 

31. His progress towards Moscow, to which he directed 
his march, was interrupted by the Russians, whom he de- 
feated at Smolensk, and the tremendous battle of Borodino, 
at which nearly 30,000 men fell on each side. He after- 
wards proceeded to Moscow, which he found enveloped in 
flames and abandoned by its inhabitants. The city had 
been set on lire by the Russians, to prevent its affording an 
asylum to the French army. Buonaparte, in this emer- 
gency, thought it prudent to retreat towards the frontiers. 
There is scarcely to be found in the annals of history, a 
parallel for the suffering which the French army now en- 
dured from cold and famine. It is stated that near 30,000 
horses perished in a single day, from the severity of the 
weather; and of the immense army, with which he inva- 
ded Russia, only about 30,000 men remained to re-cross 
the Niemen. 

32. In the meantime the emperor, leaving the remnant 
of his army, after it had crossed the Berezina, near the 
frontiers, fled in disguise to Paris, raised another army of 
350,000 men, and found himself opposed by a fifth coali- 
tion, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, and 
several of the confederate states of the Rhine. Without 
losing a moment of time, he put himself at the head of his 
army, defeated the allied powers in the battle of Bautzen; 
repulsed them to Dresden, where Moreau, one of the ablest 
of his generals was slain ; but was utterly overthrown in 
the tremendous battle of Leipsic, with a loss of 40,000 
men in killed wounded and prisoners. The combatants in 
this great engagement, called the Battle of Nations, exceed- 
ed 400,000 : a greater number than has ever been known 
to have been engaged in any one battle, in modern times. 

33. After this battle the emperor fled to Paris, and made 
a vain attempt to rouse the French people. Without loss of 
time, the Allies crossed the Rhine, penetrated into the heart 
of France, and entered the capital. Buonaparte, finding 
his situation hopeless, abdicated the throne of France, and 
after various deliberations, the island of Elba was fixed 
upon for his future residence; but he was allowed to retain 
the title of emperor. Matters being thus arranged, Loui* 
XVIII. was restored to the throne of his ancestors. 

9 



302 FRAMJK. 

34. While the allied sovereigns were yet holding a con- 
gress at Vienna, tor the purpose of arranging' the affairs of 
Europe, Buonaparte returned from exile, and made another 
effort to regain the throne of France. Landing at Frejus, 
he marched with only 1,140 men without opposition, 
through the country ; presented himself in an open carriage 
to the royal army at Melun ; was received with shouts of 
applause ; entered Paris the same evening; and was again 
proclaimed emperor, amidst the loudest acclamations. Thus 
in twenty days after his landing at Frejus, he found him- 
self quietly sealed on the throne, without having spilled a 
drop of blood. This exploit which is regarded as one of 
the most extraordinary of his life, is without a parallel in 
history, and evinces in a striking manner, his ascendancy 
over the French nation. 

35. As soon as his return to France was made known at 
Vienna, he was declared by the congress, a traitor and an 
outlaw. A new and formidable coalition was formed against 
him, by nearly all the powers of Europe. He placed him- 
self once more at the head of his army, but was entirely 
defeated by the allies, under Wellington and Blncher, in 
the memorable battle of Waterloo, with a loss of upwards 
of 40,000 men in killed and wounded. 

36. This battle sealed the fate of Buonaparte. He fled 
to Paris, abdicated the throne in favor of his son, and short- 
ly afterwards, surrendered himself to captain Maitland, of 
the Bellerophon, asking an asylum in England, which, he 
said, in a letter to the Prince Regent, was the most power- 
ful, the most constant, and most generous of all his ene- 
mies. But it was unanimously agreed among ihe allied 
sovereigns, that he should be sent a prisoner to the isle of 
St. Helena, where he arrived on the 17th of October, 1815, 
and there died on the 5th of May, 1821, in the 6th year of 
his captivity, and in the 52d of age. (See his character 
in Biography.) 

37. After the second dethronement of Buonaparte, Louis 
XV11I. was again placed on the throne of France, which 
was now reduced to nearly the same limits as before the 
revolution. The government was compelled to restore a 
considerable amount of the plunder, collected at Paris, to 
pay ^"28,000,000 sterling, tovvaids the expense of the war, 
and maintain for five years, an aimy consisting of 150,000 
of the allied troops, to be placed in different fortresses on 
the frontiers. Murat, who had been raised io the throne 
of Naples', and Marshal Key, having both taken part with 



FRANCE. 203 

Buonaparte, after his return from Elba, were sentenced to 
be shot. 

38. Louis XVIII. was succeeded in 1824, by his brother, 
Count d'Artois, under the title of Charles X. The reign 
of this monarch was signalized by two foreign enterprizes ; 
one in favor of the Greeks, in which France united with 
England and Russia, the other against the city of Algiers, 
which surrendered to the French, after a siege of six days; 
on the 5th of July, 1830. This reign was also disturbed 
by the contests between the ultra-royalists and the liberal 
party. 

39. In March, 1830, the chamber of deputies made a 
strong stand against the ministry ; in consequence of this, 
the chamber was dissolved by the king and new elections 
ordered. On the 26th of July, it having been ascertained 
that a great majority of the newly elected members were 
liberal, an ordinance was issued by the government, dis- 
solving the chamber before it met, suspending the liberty 
of the press, and altering the mode of elections. 

40. The publication of this ordinance caused the great- 
est commotion in Paris ; the citizens took up arms against 
the government, and on the 29ih of July, gained a decided 
advantage over the king's guards. The chamber of depu- 
ties met on the 3d of August ; the throne was declared va- 
cant, and the Duke of Orleans was called to accept the 
crown. On the 9th of August, the Duke took the oadi 
prescribed, and ascended the throne of France, under the 
title of Louis Philip, the present king. At the commence- 
ment of the outbreak in Paris, Charles X. fled to Scotland, 
where he resides at present with his family, in tranquil ob- 
scurity, in the ancient palace of Holyrood. 



ENGLAND. 



SECTION I. 

England from the Conquest by the Romans, A. C. 55, to 
A. D. 827. 

1. In pursuing the history of England, the mind is forci- 
My struck with her gradual rise from the lowest state of 
barbarism to the highest point of civilization and refine- 
ment. Early records represent her as a weak and defense- 
less province, prostrate at the feet of a foreign power, while 
her present history, exhibits her as a nation, holding the 
highest rank in power, in the arts of peace and war, and 
with her commerce, holding communion with the most dis- 
tant regions of the earth. 

2. The authentic history of this country can only be 
traced from its conquest by the Roman arms. A part of 
the island was invaded and conquered by Julius Caesar* 
fifty-five years before the Christian era. According to an- 
cient writers, the first inhabitants were a tribe of Cauls or 
Celtae, who had landed on the island from the neighboring 
continent. This is probable, as their language, manners, 
and mode of government, bear a striking resemblance to- 
each other. Although, comparatively speaking, in a state 
of barbarism, the inhabitants had made some slight progress 
in civilization, and had gained some knowledge of agricul- 
ture, previous to the invasion of the Romans. They lived 
in huts built in the forest; clothed themselves in the skins 
Off beasts, and lived on the milk and flesh of their herds. 
They were not wholly ignorant of the arts of war ; their 
armies, which consisted principally of foot soldiers, were 
equipped chiefly with the bow, the shield, and the lance. 
They had moreover, a kind of war-chariot set with scythes,. 



ENGLAND. 205 

which caused dreadful slaughter when driven among their 
enemies. 

3. The religion of the ancient Britons, was that of dru- 
idism, a degrading form of superstition? their priests, called 
Druids, possessed an unbounded control over the minds of 
the people. . They taught the doctrine of the transmigra- 
tion of the soul ; and offered human victims to appease the 
wrath of their gods. The oak was considered the peculiar 
residence of the deity, and at their religious solemnities, 
both the priest and the people, wore chaplets of oak, and 
covered the altar with the leaves. No vestiges of their sa- 
cred groves are now to be found, but the ruins of their tem- 
ples which still remain, show that they attained, at an ear- 
ly period, a considerable advancement in the mechanical 
arts. 

4. Such was the condition of Britain, when it attracted 
the ambition of the Roman power. Julius Caesar, who 
load spread his conquests over Germany and Gaul, now 
cast his eye upon the isle of Britain. He was not allured 
by the prospect of wealth, nor the richness of the soil, but 
ied on by the ambition of carrying his arms into a region, 
which before, was considered inaccessible to the flight of 
the Roman eagle. With this view, having collected a nu- 
merous fleet, he embarked with about 10,000 of his troops. 
On his arrival in sight of the coast, he beheld it covered 
with the Britons, prepared to dispute his landing. Not a 
little surprised on meeting with such determinate resist- 
ance, the Roman soldiers remained some time in doubtful 
•suspense, until the standard-bearer of the tenth legion, 
leaping into the sea, advanced towards the shore, declaring 
that he would do his duty to Caesar and to Rome. 

5. His example was followed by his companions ; they 
gained the shore, and put themselves in order for battle. 
The undisciplined Britons, unable to cope with Roman le- 
gions, were routed and fled in confusion. Although dis- 
cons fitted for the present, they were not conquered, but 
rallying under their respective leaders, they soon obliged 
the invader to retire to the continent with all his forces. 
Caesar however, was indefatigable in whatever he under- 
took ; returning the following year, he again invaded the 
island, forced the inhabitants to a subjection, rather nomi- 
nal than real, obliged them to give hostages for their future 
obedience, and again returned to Gaul. 

6. In the reign of Claudius, A. D. 44, the Roman arms 
were again directed towards the final subjugation of Britain. 



206 ENGLAND. 

For nine years the illustrious Caracfacus bravely defended 
his dominions against the power of Rome ; but. being at 
length defeated by the Roman general Ostorius, he was 
taken prisoner and led captive to Rome; as lie passed 
through the streets and beheld the splendor of the city, he 
was heard to exclaim; "Alas! how is it possible that a 
people possessed of such magnificence at home, should 
envy Caracfacus in his humble cottage in Britain." In A. 
D. 59, during the reign of the emperor Nero, Suetonius 
was sent to conduct the war against the Britons ; he de- 
feated them under their celebrated queen Boadicea, who put 
an end to her own life, to avoid falling into the hands of the 
conquerors. But the final subjugation was effected during 
the reign of Titus, by Agricola, who conquered Galcagits, 
a distinguished Caledonian chief, and established the Roman 
dominion over all the southern part of the island. A. D. 78. 

7. In order to prevent the incursions of the barbarians 
from Caledonia, the Romans built three walls across the 
northern part of the island. The first was of turf, built 
by the order of the emperor Adrian, extending from Sol- 
way Frith to the mouth of the river Tyne ; a second of 
wood, by Antonius, between the frith of Clyde and Forth ; 
and third of stone, by the emperor Severus. In order to 
repell the irruptions of the Goths and other barbarous tribes 
from the North, who now found their way into the plains 
of Italy, the Romans were obliged to recall their legions 
from the protection of their more distant provinces. Im- 
pelled by this necessity, near the middle of the fifth cen- 
tury, they withdrew their forces entirely from Britain, leav- 
ing the inhabitants to their own resources, 465 years after 
the landing of Julius Caesar. 

8. The northern inhabitants, the Scots and Piets, no 
longer intimidated by the Roman legions, demolished the 
walls and carried their devastations over the southern part 
of the island. The Britons, unable to protect themselves, 
sent deputies soliciting the aid of the Saxons, a warlike 
people inhabiting the north of Germany. The invitation 
was kindly accepted: a Saxon army of 1,600 men under 
the command of two brothers Hengist and Horsa, was sent 
to their relief; and the Scots and Picts were soon compel- 
led to retire to their own dominions. The Saxons having 
expelled the Scots and Picts, instead of returning to their 
own country, turned their arms against the Britons ihem- 
selves, and sending for a reinforcement, of Saxons, Angles 
and Jutes, they took possession of the country and reduced 



KNCI.AM). 207 

the inhabitants to subjection. From the .Ingle*, the name 
of England is derived. 

9. A series of contests ensued, between the inhabitants 
and the invaders. Anions the chiefiains who opposed the 
Saxons, the name of Arthur stands conspicuous. This re- 
nowned prince, whose history is regarded by many as a 
romance, is said to have defeated them in many signal en- 
gagements, without however, being able to effect a deliver- 
ance of his country. After a contest of nearly 150 years, 
the Saxons succeeded in establishing their power and erect- 
ed a ffpptarchij, or seven Saxon kingdoms, which con- 
tinued for about 200 years, and exhibited during that period 
an almost unbroken series of dissensions and sanguinary 
contests. At length Egbert, king of VVe*sex, a man of su- 
perior talents, prudence and valor, first united them in one 
kingdom under the name of England, 

10. Previous to this period, the light of Christianity had 
shone upon the island. Towards the close of the sixth 
century, St. Austin commissioned by Pope Gregory the 
Great, to carry the glad tiding* of salvation to the inhabit- 
ants of Britain. Austin accompanied by 40 monks, set 
forward to England : and having arrived in the island, an- 
nounced to Egbert, the object of his mission. Egbert and 
his queen,* attended by a vast retinue of their warlike sub- 
jects, kindly received the missionaries, and gave them an 
audience in the open air. St. Austin explained the doc- 
trines of Christianity ; the king shortly after this received 
baptism publicly, and such was the salutary influence of 
his example, that 10,000 of his subjects are said to have 
been baptized, in a single day. 



SECTION III. 

From the foundation of the Monarchy, to the Norman 
conquest, A. D. 827, to 1068. 

1. During the reign of Egbert, the coast of Britain was 
visited by a formidable enemy in the Danes, who repeated- 
ly plundered and devastated the land, destroying every 

* Bertha, the name of his queen, was the daughter of the king of 
Paris and had previously embraced Christianity. 



208 ENGLAND. 

thing by force and sword, and continued to be a scourge to 
the country for upwards of 200 years. 

2. Nothing of great importance occurred from the reign 
of Egbert to that of Alfred the Great, the sixth king of 
England. On coming to the throne, he found himself sur- 
rounded on all sides by those inveterate enemies the Danes. 
In one year he is said to have defeated them in eight, dif-. 
ferent battles, and succeeded in forcing them to retire from 
his dominions. However it was but for a short duration : 
returning with reinforcements, they extended their ravages, 
and obliged Alfred to solicit a peace. In his distress, the 
king was compelled to seek shelter for his safety, by retir- 
ing into obscurity, and thus disguised in the habit of a peas- 
ant, he passed several months in the cottage of a herdsman, 
in the capacity of a servant. While in this humble abode, 
he was ordered by the herdsman's wife, to take care of 
some cakes that she had left baking at the fire. But Al- 
fred, whose mind was otherwise employed, forgot the in- 
junction he had received and let the cakes burn ; for which 
neglect he was severely reprimanded by his mistress, who 
told him, that he was always pleased to eat her cakes, 
though negligent in toasting them. 

3. From his retreat he carefully observed the move- 
ments of the Danes, who from success had become remiss, 
and watched the earliest opportunity of again placing him- 
self at the head of his followers, who had lately gained 
some slight advantage over their enemies. In order to ascer- 
tain the the state of the Danish army, he disguised himself 
as a harper, entered their camp and played for the amuse- 
ment of the soldiers ; he was even introduced to Guthrum, 
the Danish prince, in whose tent he remained for several 
days. Having thus learned in person, the unguarded con- 
dition of the Danes, he returned to his followers and pla- 
cing himself at their head, he attacked the enemy by sur- 
prise and routed them with great slaughter. 

4. Having subdued the enemies of his country and re- 
stored peace to his kingdom, Alfred turned his attention to- 
wards repairing the evils they had caused, and improving 
the moral condition of his subjects. He invited to his do- 
minions, the most eminent scholars from all parts of Europe; 
established schools for the instruction of his people ; found- 
ed the University of Oxford, composed a code of laws, 
and, according to many historians 5 he established the trial 
by jury, and translated various works into the Saxon lan- 
guage. It is recorded of Alfred, that he executed forty cor- 



ENGLAND. 209 

nipt judges in one year ; and so exact and impartial were 
the police, that he even suspended gold bracelets by the 
highway, and no one was found to lay a rapacious hand 
upon them. 

5. He usually divided his time into three equal parts ; 
one of which was employed in study and devotion ; a sec- 
ond in the discharge of business ; and the third in sleep 
and recreating his body by exercise and diet; these divis- 
ions he exactly measured by burning tapers of equal length. 
Alfred has been justly regarded by all subsequent historians, 
as one of the wisest and most illustrious princes that ever 
adorned the English throne. He was distinguished equally 
for his private virtues and his public character, justly re- 
puted the greatest warrior, legislator and statesman of his 
age. He was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed the 
Elder, A. D. 901. Edward inherited much of the military 
spirit of his father, and his reign was almost one continued 
contest with the Northumbrians and Danes. 

6. Edward was succeeded by his brother Athelstan, a 
prince of great ability ; he carried on a successful war 
against the Danes, Scots and Northumbrians ; strengthened 
and enlarged his kingdom, caused the Scriptures to be trans- 
lated into the Saxon language and enacted a law, conferring 
the title of thane, or gentleman on every merchant, who 
should make three voyages to the Mediterranean sea. 

7. Edmund his brother succeeded to the throne. The 
reign of this king was short, and his death tragical. As 
he was celebrating a festival in Gloucester, the notorious 
robber Leolf, whom Edmund had banished, entered the 
hall where the king was dining, and took his seat among 
his attendants ; being ordered to leave the apartment, he re- 
fused to obey ; upon this Edmund rose and seized him by 
the hair ; Leolf drawing his dagger, killed the king upon 
the spot. Edmund was succeeded by his brother Edred, 
whose reign was distinguished by the final subjection of 
Northumbria. He had for one of his principal advisers, 
Dunstan, the learned and venerable abbot of Glastonbury. 
The king deposited with him all his treasures and the title 
of his lands ; and earnestly besought him to accept the va- 
cant bishoprick of Winchester, which preferment he de- 
clined. Edred, whose constitution was naturally weak, 
expired in the tenth year of his reign and left the throne 
to Edwin. 

8. Edwin or Edwy, is generally represented by cotem- 
porary writers, as a prince of a profligate character, whose 

9* 



210 ENGLAND. 

reign would scarcely be worthy of notice, were it not for 
several disputed points, which occupy a considerable space 
in some of ourjmodern historians. Elgiva, a lady of high 
birth, conceiving the design of securing for herself or 
daughter the dignity of queen, and with the view of cap- 
tivating Edwin's affections, one or the other, was constant- 
ly in his company. On the day of his coronation, after 
the banquet was over, Edwin hastily left the hall, where 
his nobles were seated, and repaired to the company of 
Elgiva and her daughter. His nobles considering his de- 
parture as an insult, appointed the bishop of Litchfield and 
the abbot of Glastonbury in the name of the whole assem- 
bly, to go and recall the king. They found him in a most 
unbecoming situation with Elgiva and her daughter, and 
having placed the crown upon his head they conducted him 
back in the hall. 

9. Shortly after this, Dunstan was banished from the 
kingdom, at the instigation of Elgiva, and Edwin was mar- 
ried. This event, it was natural to expect, would put an 
end to his amorous connections with Elgiva. Whether on 
that occasion she was sent home to her husband or com- 
mitted to the care of her relations does not appear ; but the 
king instigated by his passions or by her solicitations, car- 
ried her off by force, and placed her on one of the royal 
farms. Archbishop Odo undertook to xemove the scandal 
by enforcing the laws prescribed against women of aban- 
doned character.* Through his influence she was removed 
from the farm and banished to Ireland. 

10. In the second year of his reign, the Mercians having 
rejected his authority, Edwin marched against them in per- 
son, hut was defeated and fled with precipitation into Wes- 
sex. Elgiva, who had returned from banishment, accompan- 
ied him on his flight; at Gloster, she fell into the hands of the 
insurgents, who put her to death in a cruel manner. That 
she was never married to Edwin, at least at the time of his 
coronation, will appear evident by consulting the original 
extracts from the historians of that period to be found tran- 
scribed in Lingard's notes to his history of England. (Vol. 
3, page 311.) 

11. Edwin died shortly after the Martian war, and was 
succeeded by his brother Edgar, A. D. 959. One of the 
first acts of the new monarch was to recall from exile the 
Abbot of Glastonburg, who received episcopal consecration 

*Leg Sax, 58. 



ENGLAND. 211 

and was appointed to the bishopric of Worcester, but was 
afterwards translated to the matropolitan see of Canterbury. 
The reign of Edgar was rendered memorable for being the 
period in which England was. freed from wolves ; by offer- 
ing a reward for each head, he produced such diligence in 
the search of them, that the race shortly disappeared. 

12. Hearing of the extraordinary beauty of Elfrida, 
daughter of the Earl of Devonshire, he sent his favorite 
Atfielwold to ascertain if her beauty corresponded with the 
report. Athelwold was so completely overcome by the 
charms of Elfrida, that he resolved, if possible, to espouse 
her himself. Accordingly on his return, he represented to 
the king that her beauty had been greatly exaggerated, and 
that she was not handsome ; but on account of her wealth, 
he thought she would be a suitable match for an earl, and 
thus obtained the king's permission to marry her. Having 
afterward discovered the treachery, Edgar, resolving to be 
avenged, killed Athelwold with his own hand while hunt- 
ing, and shortly afterwards espoused Elfrida. 

13. Edgar was succeeded by his son Eward, surnamed 
the Martyr; in consequence of his having been assassinated 
at the instigation of his step-mother Elfrida, who was in- 
duced to this crime, for the purpose of procuring the crown 
for her own son. 

Ethelred II. next ascended the throne, to whom histo- 
rians give the surname of Unready, from his want of prompt- 
ness when called to duty. He was a weak and inactive 
prince. During his reign, the Danes again invaded the 
kingdom under Sweyn their king. Ethelred fled to Nor- 
mandy, leaving the kingdom in the hands of the invaders. 
The people, thus left without a leader, quietly acknowleged 
[he Danish sovereign ; but on the death of Sweyn, Ethel- 
red was again restored. After an unfortunate reign of 35 
years, Ethelred died, leaving the throne to his son Edmund, 
surnamed Ironside, on account of his great strength and 
^alor; but courage and abilities were unable to save his de- 
clining country. 

14. Canute, the son of Sweyn, having succeeded to 
.lie throne of Denmark, asserted his claim to the crown 
}f England, invaded the country with a powerful army, 
ind compelled the English monarch to divide his do- 
ninions with him. In a month after this event, Edmund 
ivas murdered at Oxford by the treachery of Edric, his 
)rother-in-!aw, and Canute was acknowledged sole monarch 
)f England. He was one of the most powerful monarchs 



212 ENGLAND. 

of his time, and received the appellation of Great, from 
his talents and the success of his name. The early part of his 
life was stained with acts of cruelty, but the latter part was 
distinguished for mildness and benevolence. After a reign 
of 18 years, he died much lamented by his subjects. 

15. Canute was succeeded by his son Harold, whose 
principal amusement was the chase ; he received the sur- 
name of Barefoot, from his swiftness in running. He was 
a prince of a weak and profligate character ; he reigned only 
three years and was succeeded by his brother Hardicanute, 
the last of the Danish kings, whose reign was only distin- 
guished for his cruelty and vices. 

16. As the late king left no issue, the English availed 
themselves of this opportunity to shake off the Danish 
yoke, and again restored the Saxon line in the person of 
Edward, the brother of Ironside. Edward was distinguished 
for the mildness of his disposition and for his personal vir- 
tue. After his death he was canonized by the Pope, and 
received the surname of Confessor. 

By the death of Edward, England was replunged into 
all the miseries of war. As he died without issue, the 
British scepter was claimed by several competitors, among 
whom Harold, son of the famous earl of Godwin, and Wil- 
liam Duke of Normandy, were the most powerful. Harold 
however, being present at Edward's death, quietly stepped 
into the vacant throne, and was joyfully acknowledged by 
the whole nation. William of Normandy resolved to assert 
his claim to the crown of England by force of arms. Hav- 
ing collected a numerous fleet, he sailed from St. Valeria 
in France, and landed atPevensey, in Sussex, wiih an army 
of 60,000 men. 

17. He was met by Harold with an army equally nu- 
merous. The night previous to the engagement, the two 
armies had pitched their camps in sight of each other, and 
waited with impatience for the return of the morning. As 
soon as the day dawned, they were drawn out in array, and 
awaited the signal for the combat. The two monarchs ap- 
peared at the" head of their armies, William on horseback, 
and Harold on foot, in the centre of the host. The memo- 
rable battle of Hastings ensued ; long and bloody was the 
contest; at length the valor of the English yielded, and vic- 
tory declared in favor of the Normans : the nation submit- 
ted to the scepter of William, who in consequence was cal- 
led The Conqueror. 



ENGLAND. 213 



SECTION III. 

The Norman Family ; William I. the Conqueror ; Wil- 
liam II. ; Henry I.; Stephen of Blois ; From A. L. 
1066, to 1154. 

1. After the battle of Hastings, the spirit of the English 
was broken ; city after city submitted to the conqueror un- 
til he found himself firmly seated on the English throne. 

Though William was a sovereign possessed of great abil- 
ities as a statesman and a warrior, yet many of his acts 
have stamped upon his reign the blot of cruelty and op- 
pression. He was remarkable in his person, being tall and 
well proportioned, and possessed of such strength, that few 
persons of that age were found, who could bend his bow or 
wield his arms. 

2. As was natural to expect, he entertained a partiality 
for his Norman followers, and advanced them to all the posts 
of honor and distinction, a measure which did not fail to 
excite the disaffection of the English subjects, who made 
several attempts to throw off the yoke ; but their endeavors 
were fruitless and only tended to tighten the chains of their 
bondage. He endeavored in a manner, to abolish the Eng- 
lish language, by causing the youth throughout the king- 
dom to learn the French tongue. No other language was 
used at court, and among the more fashionable society ; 
hence proceeded that mixture of French words which we 
find at present in the English tongue. Being much addicted 
to the pleasure of the chase, he reserved to himself the ex- 
clusive privilege of killing game throughout the kingdom, 
and formed the New .Forest, by depopulating a tract of 
land nearly thirty miles in circuit. One of the most useful 
acts of his reign, was the completing the Dooms-day Book, 
which contained a register of all the estates of his kingdom. 

3. His domestic repose was somewhat embittered by the 
disunion of his three sons, who rasided in a castle, in Nor- 
mandy. He done all that lay in his power to compromise 
their differences, without effect. His unnatural son, Rob- 
ert, openly revolted and declared war against his father. 
William besieged him in the castle of Gerberoy, where 
many encounters took place, resembling more the combats 
of chivalry, than the contests of hostile armies. In one of 
these, it happened that Robert encountered the king him- 
self, who was concealed by a helmet ; a fierce combat en- 



214 ENGLAND. 

sued ; at length the young prince wounded and dismounted 
his father. The king called out for assistance ; Robert 
hearing his voice, recognized his parent ; struck with re- 
morse, he alighted from his horse, threw himself at the feet 
of William, and implored his pardon; then assisting him 
to mount, he saw him return to his camp. A reconciliation 
soon after took place, through the interposition of his queen, 
Matilda, whom William tenderly loved. Having reached 
the 63d year of his age, William died on the continent, at 
the monastery of St. Gervais, in the 31st year of his con- 
quest of England. 

4. William II., surnamed Bufus, from his red hair, suc- 
ceeded his father in the English throne, A. D. 1087. His 
reign was marked by many acts of cruelty and perfidy. As 
he was hunting in the New Forest, he was accidently shot 
by Sir Walter Tyrrel, who had aimed an arrow at a stag, 
after a reign of 13 years. 

5. Henry I., the younger brother of William, taking ad- 
vantage of the absence of his brother Robert, the rightful 
heir, who was then on a crusade to the Holy Land, ascend- 
ed the throne. Robert, on his return, made preparations 
to gain by force of arms, the crown of England, of which 
he had been deprived during his absence. An accommo- 
dation, however, was effected between the two brothers ; 
but Henry shortly after this, infringed upon the treaty, and 
made war upon Normandy ; the conquest he effected after 
the severe fought battle of Tenchelray, where Robert was 
taken prisoner. This unfortunate prince was detained in 
custody during the remainder of his life, which lasted 28 
years, in a castle in Wales ; leaving a melancholy proof, 
how feeble are the barriers which the nearest ties of kin- 
dred can afford to the raging impulse of ambition. Henry 
was rendered inconsolable in the latter part of his life, by 
the loss of his only son, who was drowned on his passage 
from Normandy; after the news of this accident, he was 
never seen to smile. 

Henry was, in many Pespects, an able and accomplished 
sovereign, but ambitious and ungrateful. 

6. On his death he left the throne to his daughter, Ma- 
tilda, but Stephen, Earl of Blois, and nephew to the late 
king, a noble of great ability and unbounded ambition, 
seized the crown. Matilda immediately determined to as- 
sert her right by force of arms, and raising an army, 
she defeated Stephen and took possession of the throne; 
but by a strange occurrence of events, which are tedious 



ENGLAND. 215 

and by no means interesting;, Stephen in his turn, hav- 
ing; defeated her and compelled her to leave her domin- 
ions, again ascended the throne. Henry, the son of Matil- 
da, resolving; to maintain his rightful inheritance to the 
English crown, invaded the country at the head of a pow- 
erful army ; but an accommodation ensued by which it was 
agreed that Stephen should reign until his death, after which 
the crown should fall to Henry. 



SECTION IV. 

Family of Plantagenet ; Henry II.; Richard I.; John; 
Henry III. ; Edioard I. ; Edward II. ; Edward III. ; 
Richard II.; from A. D. 1154, to 1399. 

Henry II., in whom were united the families of the 
Saxon and Norman monarchs, now ascended the British 
throne, at the age of 21. By his marriage with Eleanor, 
heiress of Guienne, he possessed by inheritance, nearly 
half of France. The most important achievement of this 
monarch's life, was his invasion and subjugation of Ireland, 
which country has remained, more or less, in a state of sub- 
jection to the English crown to the present time. During 
the early part of his reign, the famous Thomas-a-Becket, 
a man of extraordinary abilities, held the first place in the 
favor of the king, who promoted him to the office of high 
chancellor, and made him preceptor of the young princes. 
Becket displayed a magnificence equal to his dignity ; his 
table was free of access to every person who had business 
at court; he took precedence of all the lay barons, and 
among his vassals, he numbered upwards of a hundred 
knights. 

2. Henry lived on terms of the greatest familiarity with 
his chancellor, and seemed to have resigned into his hands, 
the government of his dominions. About this time it hap- 
pened that the see of Canterbury became vacant, and Beck- 
et, on account of his situation, was pointed to as the person 
most likely to fill it. Accordingly, the king sent a message 
to the chancellor, who was then on the continent, to repair 
to England, intimating to him at the same time, that in a 
few days he would be archbishop of Canterbury. Becket 
replied that if the king were serious, he begged permission 



216 ENGLAND. 

to decline the preferment, because it would be impossible 
for him to perform the duties of that station, and at the 
same time retain the favor of his sovereign. But Henry 
was inflexible, and insisted on his accepting the preferment. 
Becket at length, much against his own judgment, was in- 
duced to acquiesce. Shortly after his return to England, 
he was ordained priest, and in a few days received episco- 
pal consecration. 

3. Becket, whose private life had always been marked b) 7 " 
the strictest integrity and morality, now began to think 
more seriously of acquiring those virtues that more partic- 
ularly adorn the clerical character. The ostentatious par- 
ade and worldly pursuits of the chancellor, were instantly 
renounced by the archbishop. The train of knights and 
noblemen who were accustomed to attend him, were ex- 
changed for a few companions, selected from among the 
most virtuous and learned of the clergy. His diet was ab- 
stemious and his charities were abundant ; his time was 
occupied in prayer, study, and in the discharge of his epis- 
copal functions ; and as he found it difficult to unite the 
duties of his present station with those of chancellor, he 
resigned this latter office into the hands of the king. 

4. The good understanding which for some time subsist- 
ed between the primate and the king, was not destined to 
be of long continuance. Henry began to make encroach- 
ments on the rights of the church and the clergy ; sought 
to deprive them of the privilege of being tried for offenses 
in the ecclesiastical courts, which privilege they had en- 
joyed from a very early period, and required that a clergy- 
man, after he had been degraded by the sentence of his 
spiritual judges, should be delivered into the custody of a 
lay officer to be punished by the lay tribunal. To this it was 
replied, that it would be placing the English clergy on a foot- 
ing, inferior to their brothers in any other Christian coun- 
try ; it was repugnant to those liberties which the king 
had sworn to preserve at his coronation, and that it violated 
the first principle of law, by requiring that the same indi- 
vidual should be twice punished for the same offense. 

5. The king grew indignant at the opposition of the 
bishops, and in order to bring the matter to an issue, sum- 
moned a great council to meet at Clarendon. Here, by en- 
treaties, threats, and intimidation, he prevailed on the bish- 
ops to sign what is called, the " Constitution of Claren- 
don." As several articles in this constitution were derog- 
atory to the rights of the church, and infringed on the pa- 



ENGLAND. 217 

pal jurisdiction, by prohibiting appeals to the court of Rome 
without the king's consent, the bishops in signing it, had 
sacrificed their conscience. 

6. As the primate returned, he meditated in silence on his 
conduct in the council, and saw the error into which intim- 
idation had betrayed hirn ; he bewailed his fault and imme- 
diately retracted his assent. His conduct inflamed anew, 
the indignation of Henry. At length, the archbishop thought 
it prudent to withdraw for a season, from England, and re- 
tired into France. 

7. A reconciliation was soon after effected between Hen- 
ry and the primate, who again returned to England, carry- 
ing letters of suspension or excommunication from the 
pope, against the bishops of York, London, and Salisbury. 
The bishops, on receiving these letters, burst into violent 
complaints against the primate, and hastened into Norman- 
dy to seek redress from the king. Henry, in a moment of 
irritation, exclaimed, «' Of all the cowards who eat at my 
table, is there not one who will free me from this turbulent 
priest." Four of his knights, who were present, taking 
this for the royal approbation, bound themselves by oath, 
to carry off or murder the primate. 

8. They immediately set out for England, hastened to 
Canterbury, and entering the palace of the archbishop, they 
upbraided him with insolence to the king. As they left his 
apartment, the hour for vespers arrived, and the undaunted 
prelate went unattended to the cathedral. He was ascend- 
ing the steps of the choir, when the assassins entered the 
church. One of the number cried out, " Where is the 
traitor;" to this, no answer was returned. But when an- 
other asked, " Where is the archbishop," the prelate re- 
plied, " Here is the archbishop, but no traitor." Upon 
this, one of the assassins aimed a blow which wounded him 
on the head. As he felt the blood trickling down his face, 
he clasped his hands, and bowing down, he said, "In the 
name of Christ and for the defense of his church, I am 
ready to die." In this posture, he turned towards his mur- 
derers, and under their repeated blows, he sunk to the floor, 
at the foot of St. BenneVs altar. 

9. Thus perished this extraordinary man, a martyr to 
what he deemed his duty, the preservation of the privileges 
and immunities of the church. His death was the triumph 
of his cause ; the church seemed to derive new vigor from 
the blood of her champion. The first news of this event, 
filled Henry with consternation and alarm ; he now lament- 



218 ENGLAND. >s. 

ed when too late, the hasty expression that had led to the 
commission of so terrible a crime. Bat subsequent events 
caused the monarch to think more seriously on this trans- 
action than at present. Some few years afterwards, he be- 
held his own sons uniting- in rebellion against him, in con- 
junction with his perfidious barons. Such things, he con- 
cluded, were not in the ordinary course of nature ; they 
could be no other than the effects of the divine wrath which 
he had enkindled by his persecution of the archbishop. 

10. The name of the prelate had been lately enrolled by 
the pope, in the catalogue of the saints, and the fame of the 
miracles wrought at his shrine, resounding through every 
part of Europe. Henry, to expiate his offense, resolved 
to make a pilgrimage to the tomb of the manyr. For this 
purpose, he hastily set sail for England, and when he came 
within sight of Canterbury, he dismounted from his horse 
and walked without any covering on his feet, towards the 
city ; as he entered the gate, it was observed that his foot- 
steps were stained with blood. Without making any delay, 
he hastened to the cathedral, and there threw himself at the 
foot of the tomb, while the bishop of London addressed 
the spectators. As soon as the prelate had concluded his 
discourse, Henry arose and repaired to the chapter-house 
of the convent, where the monks, a few bishops and abbots 
were assembled. Before them, the royal penitent, on his 
knees, confessed his crime, and received on his shoulders, 
with a knotted cord, a [ew stripes from each. After this 
extraordinary act of humiliation, he returned again to the 
shrine, and spent the night in prayer. 

1 1. The latter part of his life was embittered by the un- 
natural conduct of his sons, who joined in a second rebel- 
lion against their father, aided by the king of France. On 
receiving a list of those who had conspired to deprive him 
of his crown, the first name that caught his eye, was that 
of his favorite son, John. He read no more, but returned 
the paper with a broken heart. At first he sunk into a deep 
melancholy ; this was followed by a raging fever, during 
which he called down the heaviest denunciations of heaven 
on his ungrateful children. He died in the 58th year of his 
age, and 35th of his reign. Henry, in many respects, may 
be ranked among the ablest of the English monarchs. He 
possessed distinguished abilities, as a statesman and war- 
rior ; yet his private life was far from being commendable ; 
pride, passion, duplicity, and ambition, seem to have been 
the most prominent features of his character. 



ENGLAND. 219 

12. Richard I., surnamed Coeur de Lion, or the Lion- 
hearted, now ascended the throne, and endeavored to atone 
in some measure, for his ungrateful conduct towards his 
father, by renouncing- those who had assisted in the unnat- 
ural rebellion, and receiving- into his favor the ministers of 
the former reign. Richard was a prince of a chivalrous 
and romantic turn of mind. Shortly after his accession to 
the throne, he engaged in the crusades, and in conjunction 
with Philip Augustus of France, embarked on an expedi- 
tion to the Holy Land. Here his personal valor was con- 
spicuous in every engagement; he defeated the celebrated 
Saladin, in the memorable battle of Ascalon, in which 40,- 
000 Saracens were slain, and finally compelled him to con- 
clude a treaty of peace. 

13. On his return homeward, being shipwrecked, he 
endeavored to pass in disguise through Geimany, but was 
discovered and detained a prisoner by the emperor, Henry 
VI., who released him after a long confinement, on the 
payment of ^6300, 000. Having regained his liberty, he 
returned to his own dominions, from which he had been 
absent for nearly four years. The year following, having 
laid siege to the castle of Chalus, he received a wound of 
which he died, in the 10th year of his reign, and the 42d 
of his age. Richard has been styled, the Achilles of mod- 
ern times ; his achievements more resemble the deeds of a 
hero of romance, than those of a wise and political sover- 
eign. 

14. Johivthe brother of Richard, succeeded to the throne ; 
his reign is regarded as one of the most infamous in Eng- 
lish history. His nephew, Arthur, the son of Geoffrey, 
an elder brother, was the rightful heir to the crown. The 
young prince happened to fall into the power of John, by 
whom he was basely murdered, lest at any future period, 
he might assert his claim. This act of treachery excited 
universal disgust. Philip Augustus, of France, supported 
the claim of Arthur, and to avenge his death, deprived the 
English monarch of his French possessions. 

15. John, although his queen was yet alive, indulged a 
passion for Isabella, daughter of Ay mar, Count of Anq-ou- 
leme, a lady who had been already betrothed to the Count 
of De le Marche, yet by reason of her age, the marriage 
had not been consummated. Having procured a divorce 
from his own wife, he espoused Isabella. The sovereign 
pontiffs, during the Middle Ages, were frequently called 
on to interpose their spiritual power, to shield the people 



220 ENGLAND. 

from oppression, and to arrest the vices and check the pas- 
sions of their rulers, and even the jurisprudence of that 
period acceded to the pope on some extraordinary occa- 
sions, the power of absolving the people from their alle- 
giance to their sovereign. 

16. On this occasion, Innocent III. remonstrated with 
John without effect. Another circumstance which hap- 
pened at this time, caused the pope to put in execution the 
full .extent of his spiritual power. It had been a custom 
from an early period in England, to consult the king in the 
appointment of a bishop to fill any of the vacant sees. It 
happened at this time, that the bishopric of Canterbury be- 
came vacant, and Lane ton was chosen to fill it; the pope 
thought proper to depart from the usual custom, and corn- 
firmed the appointment without consulting the king, whose 
late conduct had given so much scandal to his subjects. 
John highly incensed at this, sent two of his knights to ex- 
pel the monks from the convent, and vented his rage on all 
who had any hand in the instrument. For this infringment 
of his spiritual jurisdiction, the pope proceeded to place 
the kingdom under an Interdict. : an instrument which was 
only resorted to on extraordinary occasions, and one calcu- 
lated to strike the mind with sensations of awe. 

17. While it remained in force, the nation was deprived 
of all the exterior exercises of religion ; the altars were de- 
spoiled of their ornaments ; the crosses, relics, pictures, 
and statues of the saints, were laid on the ground and cov- 
ered up ; the bells were removed from the churches ; mass 
was celebrated with closed doors ; the laity partook of no 
religious rights except baptism, and communion to the dy- 
ing ; the dead were not entered in consecrated ground, and 
marriage was celebrated in the church yard. 

18. John, at length overcome by the evils which he had 
brought on his kingdom, yielded his obstinacy, became re- 
conciled to the church, and fearful of the invasion of the 
French monarch, he surrendered his crown to the pope, 
from whom he consented to hold it as a vassal. In the 
mean time, his natural disposition for tyranny seemed to 
increase ; he despised his nobles, and sought every oppor- 
tunity of infringing upon their privileges. The barons at 
length, unable to support his tyrannical exactions, under the 
direction of Lancton the primate, formed a confederacy 
against him. They met at Runnyone.de, and compelled him 
after much opposition, to sign and seal the famous document 
of Magna Charta, which is even now regarded as the great 



ENGLAND. 221 

bulwark of English liberty, and by which important liber- 
ties and privileges are secured to every order of men in the 
kingdom. A. D. 1215. John died the following year, af- 
ter an odious reign of 18 years, with scarcely a single vir- 
tue to redeem a thousand vices. 

His son, Henry III. succeeded to the throne at the age of 
nine years, under the guardianship of the Earl of Pem- 
broke. The history of this reign consists of little more 
than a recital of a series uf internal contests between the 
king and his turbulent barons. Henry was a weak and 
timid prince ; gentle and mild in his disposition, but he 
greatly displeased the nation by his partiality to foreigners. 

The barons, with^the Earl of Leicester at their head, took 
up arms and compelled the king to resign his authority to 
twenty-four of their number, and having thus divided all 
the offices of the government among themselves, they dis- 
regarded the privileges of the crown and trampled on the 
rights of the people. But the knights of the Shire, who 
now began to assemble separately from the lords, indignant 
at the usurpation of Leicester and his confederate barons, 
took up arms in favor of the king. A battle was fought at 
Lewes, in which the royal army was defeated, and the king 
with his son Edward was made prisoner. 

19. Leicester now compelled the king to ratify his author- 
ity by a solemn treaty ; assumed the character of regent 
and called a parliament, consisting of two knights from each 
shire, and deputies from the principal boroughs. From 
this period is generally dated the first outline of the present 
English house of Commons. Young Edward having at 
length regained his liberty, in conjunction with the Duke 
of Gloucester, took the field against Leicester, who was de- 
feated and slain in the famous battle of Evesham. Henry 
was again restored to the throne, but died shortly after this 
event in the 64th year of his age, and the 56th of his reign. 
A. D. 1272. 

20. Edward who had early given indications of distin- 
guished military abilities, was absent on a crusade at the 
time of his father's death. On one occasion, as he sat in 
his tent, an assassin entered and aimed a poisoned arrow at 
his breast; he found means to ward off the blow, but re- 
ceived a wound in his arm. His devoted queen Eleanor, 
of Castile, saved his life at the evident risk of her own by 
extracting the poison by applying her mouth to the wound. 
He had advanced as far as Sicily on his return, when he 
received information of his father's death. 



222 . ENGLAND. 

21. On his arrival in England, he was received with joy 
by all classes of the people, and immediately turned his 
attention towards removing the disorders which filled the 
state during the preceding reign. Having restored order 
and tranquility at home, he turned his arms towards the 
subjugation of Wales, and having defeated and slain Llew- 
ellyn, the king, he annexed that country to the British 
crown, and created his eldest son Prince of Wales, a title 
which at the present time distinguishes the oldest son of the 
English monarch. Edward was shortly afterwards made 
umpire, in a dispute between Robert Bruce and John Ba- 
liol, respecting the succession of the Scotish throne. He 
adjudged the crown to Baliol, who engaged to hold it as a 
vassal of the English monarch. He however, threw off 
his allegiance, and Edward invaded Scotland with a power- 
ful army ; defeated the Scots in the battle of Dunbar, sub- 
dued the kingdom, and carried Baloil captive to England. 

22. The Scot*, who had unwillingly submitted to] the 
yoke of subjugation, were roused to assert their indepen- 
dence throng!) the influence of the renowned hero Sir Wil- 
liam Wallace; but after a series of brilliant achievements, 
their efforts failed for the present; the illustrious Wallace 
was basely betrayed into the hands of Edward, and put to 
death with barbarous cruelty. They found, however, a 
more- successful champion in the person of Robert Bruce, 
grand-son Baliol, who, after he had expelled the British 
from the country, was restored to the throne of his ances- 
tors. Edward having made preparation for a second inva- 
sion of Scotland, died at Carlisle in the 35th year o^ bus reign 
Edward was eminently distinguished as a legislator and 
warrior, but his cruelty toward the Jews, and his cold-blooded 
massacre of the bards of Wales, have stamped upon his 
memory an indellible blot of tyranny and rapacity. 

24. Edward II. succeeded his father to the throne, and 
immediately invaded Scotland with an army of 100,000 
men, which was met at Bannockburn by Robert Bruce, with 
30,000. A dreadful conflict ensued, in which the English 
were signally defeated. Edward possessed but few quali- 
ties to distinguish him as a sovereign ; he was mild in dis- 
position, but weak and indolent, fond of pleasure and allowed 
himself to be governed by unworthy favorites, -which ex- 
cited against him the turbulent spirit of his barons and filled 
his reign with civil dissensions. 

25. Isabella, his queen, a woman of the most infamous 
character, fixed her affections upon Mortimer, a young and 



ENGLAND. 223 

powerful baron, with whom she entered into a conspiracy 
against the king and compelled him to resign in favor of his 
son. Edward was cast into prison, and' barbarously mur- 
dered at the instigation of Isabella, in Berkely castle, A. D. 
1328. 

26. Edward III. succeeded to the throne in the 14th 
year of his age. During his minority, a regency of twelve 
persons was appointed; yet Mortimer and the infamous 
queen maintained their power and exercised the chief con- 
trol. Almost the first act of Edward, on coming of acre, 
was to punish the murderers of his unhappy father. Mor- 
timer was publicly executed; Isabella was confined in the 
castle of Risings, where she remained for twenty-eight 
years, a memorable example of blasted ambition. Edward's 
first expedition was against the Scots, whom he defeated 
with great slaughter in the battle of Hcdidown Hill. 

27. He claimed the crown of France, which he pretend- 
ed he inherited from his mother, and resolved to maintain 
it by force of arms, in opposition to Philip of Valois, who 
had ascended the French throne. Having collected a pow- 
erful armament of 250 sail, he departed from England, and 
having encountered a French fleet of 400 ships, on the 
coast of Flanders, he gained one of the most memorable 
naval victories recorded in history. The loss of the Eng- 
lish is said to have been only 4,000 men and two ships, 
while 30,000 of the French fell in the engagement, with 
the loss of 230 of their vessels. 

28. He then invaded the country at the head of 30,000 
troops, and spread devastation wherever he advanced. He 
met the French monarch, who advanced to oppose, at the 
head of an army of 100,000 men, and defeated him in the 
famous battle of Cressy. This battle is rendered memor- 
able for being the first in which the English made use of 
cannon ; also for being the scene in which Edward, the 
Black Prince, (so called from the color of his armor,) the 
king's eldest son, then in the 16th year of his age, com- 
menced his brilliant military career. While the battle raged 
in its greatest fury, a messenger was despatched, desiring 
that succor might be sent to the aid of the Prince, Edward 
replied to the messenger, " Go tell my son, that I reserve 
for him the glory of this day ; he will be able without my 
aid, to repel the enemy." Edward having taken the city 
of Calais, after a memorable ?iege, returned again to Eng- 
land. 



224 ENGLAND. 

29. While the English monarch was conducting his con- 
quests on the continent, the Scots made an irruption into 
his dominions at home; but were defeated in a battle at 
Neville's Cross, by Philippa, his heroic queen, and their 
king was led captive to London. 

John, who succeeded his father in the throne of France, 
resolved to expeli the English from his dominions, and took 
the field with an army of 60,000 men. He was met by 
the Black prince and defeated in the memorable battle of 
Poictiers, in which he was made prisoner and conducted 
to London by the prince, where he was detained a fellow 
captive with David, the Scottish king. 

30. Edward, who in the early part of his life, had ac- 
quired such brilliant military renown, towards the end of 
his reign, sunk into indolence and indulgence, and before 
his death, he had lost all his conquests with the exception 
of Calais. The death of the Black Prince, whose heroic 
deeds were only surpassed by the amiable virtues that 
adorned his mind, filled the nation with sorrow and left his 
father disconsolate for the loss. The king only survived 
this event a few months ; he died in the 65th year of his 
age, and 51st of his reign, A. D. 1377. 

31. Edward was one of the most illustrious princes of 
his age. His military achievements in France and Scot- 
land, though unjust in their object, cast a lustre on his reign 
and render it one of most brilliant recorded in English his- 
tory. During his reign, Chivalry was carried to its height 
in England. Edward himself and his son, the Black 
Prince, possessed in a high degree, all the^accomplishments 
of the knightly character. He instituted the order of the 
Garter, and also built the magnificent castle of Windsor. 
The French language was discontinued in courts of justice 
during his reign. 

32. Edward was succeeded by Richard II., son of the 
Black Prince, at the age of 11 years. During his minor- 
ity the administration of the government was intrusted to 
his uncles, the dukes of Lancaster, York, and Glouces- 
ter ; of these however, the duke of Lancaster acted the 
most prominent part. In the early part of his reign the 
parliament levied a poll-tax of three groats upon all over 
the age of 15 years. This gave great dissatisfaction on 
account of its injustice, in exacting as much from the poor 
as from the rich. 

33. The flame of insurrection spread through the king- 
dom. The insurgents found a leader in the person of Wat 



ENGLAND. 225 

Tyler, a blacksmith by profession, who, in a short time, 
finding himself at the head of 100,000 followers, lead them 
to Smithfield, where the king invited him to a conference. 
His haughty demeanor here, excited the indignation of one 
the king's attendants, who struck him dead upon the spot. 
This rash act committed in the presence of the mutineers, 
would have proved fatal to the king and his attendants, had 
it not been for the presence of mind displayed by the youth- 
ful prince, who riding up towards them while their bows 
were bent for execution, exclaimed : " What my people ! 
will you kill your king? I myself will be your leader; 
follow me into the field and you shall have what you de- 
sire." 

34. The flattering hopes which the nation had formed of 
Richard's future greatness from his conduct on this occa- 
sion, greatly declined as he advanced in years. The nor- 
thern borders were thrown into disorder by the rivalship 
between the family of Percy, of the north of England, and 
the house of Douglas, of Scotland. A sanguinary battle 
was fought at Otterbum, in which Percy, surnamed Hot- 
spur, was taken prisoner and Douglas slain. On this battle 
is founded the celebrated ballad of Chevy Chace. 

35. While Richard was absent in Ireland to quell an in- 
surrection in that country, the young duke of Lancaster 
excited a revolt against his authority in England. The king 
on his return, after undergoing a mock trial, was compelled 
to resign his crown ; while the duke in the mean time, as- 
cended the throne under the title of Henry IV., A. D. 1399. 

The deposed monarch was imprisoned in the castle of 
Pom/ret, where he was shortly afterwards put to death in 
the most cruel manner. 



SECTION V. 

Branch of Lancaster ; Henry IV.; Henry V. ; Henry 
VI., from A. D. 1399, to 1461. 

1. Henry thus succeeded to the throne by the deposition 
and murder of his lawful sovereign, and to the exclusion of 
the rightful heir, Edward Mortimer, whose descendants, 
as we will see in the sequel, after a series of contests be- 
tween the York and Lancaster families, succeeded in estab- 
10 



226 ENGLAND. 

lishing their disputed claim to the crown. Henry soon 
found that the diadem that glitters upon the brow of mon- 
archs, bears with it an empty name and conceals beneath 
its splendor, a thousand imbittering cares, unknown to the 
man of the humbler walks of life. 

2. Scarcely was he seated on the throne, when an insur- 
rection was raised against him, headed by Northumberland, 
and joined by the Scots, under Douglas, and the Welsh, 
under Owen Glendower ; but they were defeated by the 
royal forces in a desperate battle, fought at Shrewsbury. 
The latter part of his life was imbittered by the profligate 
conduct of his son, the prince of Wales. On a certain oc- 
casion, one of his companions was indicted for some mis- 
demeanor, before the chief justice, Sir William Gascoigne ; 
the young prince who was present, became so exasperated 
at the issue of the trial, that he struck the judge in open 
court. The venerable magistrate, impressed with the dig- 
nity of his office, ordered the prince to be committed to 
prison ; the prince willingly submitted to the order of the 
judge. When the circumstance was related to the king, he 
exclaimed, " Happy is the king, who has a magistrate en- 
dowed with courage to execute laws upon such an offend- 
er; still more happy, in having a son who is willing to 
submit to such a chastisement." Henry died in the 46th 
year of his age, and 14th of his reign, A. D. 1413. 

3. Henry V., on succeeding to the throne, agreeably sur- 
prised the nation by a sudden reformation of his conduct. 
Calling together all his abandoned companions, he acquaint- 
ed them of his design, and forbade them to appear in his 
presence, until they had followed his example. He re- 
ceived with respect, the faithful ministers of his father; 
commended Gascoigne for his impartial conduct, and ex- 
horted him to continue in a strict execution of the laws. 

4. Henry having revived his claim to the crown of 
France, and taking advantage of the internal disorders of 
that kingdom, invaded the country at the head of only 
15,000 men, and defeated the French army, amounting to 
60,000 men, in the famous battle of Agincourt. The 
French lost on this memorable occasion, 11,000 killed, and 
14,000 prisoners, while the English lost only 40 slain. 
After having reduced Normandy, he was declared regent of 
France, and acknowledged heir to the crown. But having 
reached the summit of earthly glory, his brilliant career 
was cut short by the hand of death ; he died in the 34th 
year of his age, and the 10th of his reign, A. D. 1422. 



ENGLAND. 227 

5. Henry VI., on the death of his father, succeeded to 
the throne at the age of 10 months, and was proclaimed 
king- of England and of France. During his minority, his 
uncles, the dukes of Bedford and Gloucester, were ap- 
pointed protectors of his dominions, the former of France 
and the latter of England. The French, considering this 
a favorable moment, resolved to shake off the English 
yoke, and again assert the independence of their country. 
In this they succeeded, and Charles VII. , the Dauphin, re- 
covered by degrees, the greater part of his kingdom. 

6. The city of Orleans was so situated between the 
provinces possessed by Charles and those commanded by 
the regent, that it afforded an easy access to either. To 
this point, therefore, the forces of each were directed ; the 
French to defend, the English to reduce it. At length, af- 
ter the French were reduced to the last extremity, the Eng- 
lish were compelled to raise the siege through the courage 
of the renowned heroine, Joan of Arc, and shortly after 
they were deprived of all their possessions in France ex- 
cept Calais. 

7. Henry as he advanced in years, exhibited a mild and 
inoffensive disposition ; he might perhaps, have reigned 
with credit at some less turbulent period, but he was ill cal- 
culated to manage the reins of government at the time in 
which he lived. He married Margaret of Anjou, daughter 
of the king of Sicily, a woman of a heroic mind and emi- 
nently distinguished for the part she bore in the wars that 
distracted his reign. The insurrection of Jack Cade, was 
an event of considerable importance. Cade, under the as- 
sumed name of John Mortimer, collected an army of 20,- 
000 followers, but was defeated and slain. 

8. The Duke of Gloucester was heir to the crown, in 
case the king died without issue ; he had opposed the mar- 
riage of Henry with Margaret, a circumstance which did 
not fail to render him odious in the eyes of the queen, and 
his death took place a short time after in a very suspicious 
manner. This event, in connection with the weak charac- 
ter of the king, encouraged the Duke of York to assert his 
claim to the crown. At this period, the sanguinary contest 
between the houses of York and Lancaster was commenced, 
and by. it England was for thirty years, a subject of dispute ; 
the nation was drenched in all the horrors of civil war, in- 
volving alike the inmates of the cottage and the castle ; all 
the social ties of affection seemed rent asunder ; often was 
the father armed against his son ; the son against his father; 



228 ENGLAND. 

brother against brother, and the nearest friends against each 
other. The adherents of the house of Lancaster, chose a 
red rose as a symbol of their party, while the house of 
York, wore the white rose ; hence, these wars are known 
by the contest between the two roses. More than 100,000 
men, during this contest, were sacrificed at the unhallowed 
shrine of ambition. 

9. In the battle of St. Albans, the Lancasterians were de- 
feated and the king taken prisoner ; but queen Margaret still 
kept the field and gained the battle of Wakefield, in which 
the Duke of York was defeated and slain. But Edward, 
his son, inherited all the ambition and abilities of his father ; 
he was then in the bloom of youth, remarkable for the 
beauty of his person, his bravery and affability, which 
gained him the affection of the people. Confiding in his 
popularity more than in his right to the crown, he entered 
London with a numerous army, amidst the shouts of the 
citizens, and was proclaimed king, under the title of Ed- 
ward IV., A. D. 1461. 



SECTION VI. 



Branch of York ; Edward IV. ; Edward V. ; Richard 
HI. From A. D. 1461, to 1485. 

1. Edward, who had now attained the summit of his 
ambition, soon found that the throne was not a place for the 
enjoyment of tranquility and repose. The undaunted Mar- 
garet, having collected an army of 60,000 men, again took 
the field against him. Edward and the Earl of Warwick, 
at the head of an army much inferior in number, marched 
to oppose her. A tremendous battle was fought at Town- 
ton, in which Edward gained a decisive victory, leaving 
36,000 Englishmen dead upon the field. 

2. The unfortunate queen, with no other attendant than 
her son, a boy about eight years of age, while flying from 
her enemies, was benighted in Hexham forest, and fell into 
the hands of ruffians, who despoiled her of her jewels and 
treated her with the greatest indignity; they however, dis- 
puted about the spoils, and while engaged in dispute, she 
effected her escape with her son, into the thickest of the 
forest. But when overcome with fright and fatigue, and 



ENGLAND. 229 

about to sink in despair, she was suddenly aroused by the 
approach of a robber, with a drawn sword. Finding no 
possible means of escaping, she determined to throw her- 
self upon his generosity. She arose as he approached, and 
said, " Friend, here is the son of your king ; I commit him 
to your protection." The man, pleased with the confidence 
placed in him, offered every assistance in his power, and 
safely conducted her with her son to a sea-port, from which 
she escaped and sailed for Flanders. 

3. Edward now finding himself securely seated on the 
throne, began to exhibit the bias of his character. The 
Earl of Warwick, the most powerful nobleman in England, 
and one of the greatest generals of his time, had been com- 
missioned to France to procure Bona of Savoy, as queen 
for the young monarch. While he was absent, Edward 
happened, during a hunting party, to pay a visit to the dutch- 
ess of Bedford, at Grafton, and saw for the first time, the 
young and beautiful lady Elizabeth Gray, daughter of the 
dutchess. Struck with her beauty and accomplishments, 
he raised her to the throne, forgetful of his engagements 
with Bona of Savoy. 

4. The Duke, on his return to England, was inflamed 
with indignation, and leaving the court in disgust, he retired 
to France, where he entered into a league with queen Mar- 
garet, and espoused the interest of the fallen monarch. 
Through his exertions, Edward was deposed, and Henry, 
after having remained a prisoner in the Tower for six years, 
was again reinstated on the throne. Thus Warwick having 
restored Henry, whom he deposed, and now having re- 
moved Edward, whom he had raised to the throne, obtain- 
ed the title of King-maker. Edward, who had retired to 
the court of the Duke of Burgundy, shortly after returned 
with reinforcements, and defeated the forces of Henry in 
the bloody battle of Barnet, in which the brave Warwick* 
was slain. 

5. The intrepid Margaret, on learning this overthrow, 
yielded to her destiny almost in despair, and bursting into 
a flood of grief, she retired to an abbey in Hampshire. 
But at the urgent solicitation of her adherents, she again 
left her retreat and made a last and desperate effort to re- 
gain the crown in the battle of Tewkesbury, which blight- 
ed forever, the last remnant of her hopes. She was taken 
prisoner with her son ; the king asked the prince how he 
dared to invade his dominions, to which the youthful Ed- 
ward replied, " I have entered the dominions of my father 



230 ENGLAND. 

to avenge his injuries and to redress my own." The un- 
generous king, enraged at this magnanimous reply, struck 
the prince with his gauntlet ; some of his attendants, taking 
this as a signal for further violence, hurried the prince into 
the next apartment and dispatched him with their daggers. 

6. The unhappy queen, after sustaining the cause of her 
husband in twelve different battles, after surviving her 
friends, her children and her fortune, passed the remainder 
of her days, an exile in France, where she died in obscu- 
rity and neglect. Henry terminated his eventful life by 
assassination, in prison. Edward IV. passed the remainder 
of his reign in acts of tyranny and cruelty. He caused his 
brother, the duke of Clarence, to be condemned for a tri- 
fling offense, and being allowed to chose the manner of his 
death, he was drowned in a cask of Malmsey wine. 

These acts of cruelty were soon terminated by the death 
of the king himself; he died in the 42d year of his age, 
A. D. 1482. During this monarch's reign, the art of print- 
ing was introduced into England, by Edward Claxton of 
London. 

7. Edward IV. left two sons ; the oldest being only 13 
years of age, succeeded to the throne under the title of 
Edward V. The Duke of Gloucester, brother of the late 
king, being appointed protector during the young king's 
minority, after causing lord Hastings and other distinguish- 
ed persons to be put to death without trial, seized upon the 
crown under the pretense that his nephews were illegiti- 
mate, and caused himself to be proclaimed king, by the ti- 
tle of Richard III. The two young princes shortly after- 
wards disappeared, and are said to have been smothered in 
the Tower, by the order of the king himself. 

8. Richard, who had gained the throne by imbruing his 
hands in the blood of lawful heirs, was not destined long 
to enjoy the ill-gotten crown. Henry Tudor, the Earl of 
Richmond, the only surviving heir of the house of Lan- 
caster, advanced his title to the crown, and assisted by the 
king of France, once more revived the almost extinguished 
spirit of his party. A decisive battle was fought at Bos- 
worth, in which Richard was slain ; his rival was crowned 
upon the field of battle, and assumed the title of Henry 
VII. 

This event terminated the long and bloody contest be- 
tween the houses of York and Lancaster, which had en- 
tailed so many evils upon the nation, and reduced it almost 
to a state of barbarism ; the arts of peace being entirely 
neglected for those of war. 



ENGLAND. 231 



SECTION VII. 

Tudor family ; Henry VII ; Henry VIII ; Edward 
VI.-, Mary; Elizabeth; From A. D. 1485, to 1603. 

1. The succession of Henry to the throne, was an event 
highly favorable to the nation, as it put an end to the ruin- 
ous civil wars that had so long devastated the kingdom. By 
marrying Elizabeth, daughter of Edward the IV., he 
strengthened his claim and thus united the two houses of 
Lancaster and York. The early part of his reign was dis- 
turbed by the appearance of two successive pretenders to 
the throne. The one in the person of Lambert Simnel, 
the son of a baker, who attempted to counterfeit the Earl 
of Warwick ; the other was one Perkin TVarbeck who 
made an attempt to counterfeit the Duke of York, who had 
been murdered in the tower, by order of Richard III. 

2. Lambert, after being proclaimed king of England and 
Ireland at Dublin, was made prisoner, but Henry instead 
of consigning him to the scaffold, made him a servant in 
his kitchen; Warbeck however, supported his cause for 
some time with better success ; many of the nobility flock- 
ed to his standard, aad he was acknowledged as sovereign 
of England by the kings of France and Scotland. After a 
variety of adventures, he surrendered himself to the king 
under a promise of pardon ; but having been detected in a 
conspiracy with the Earl of Warwick, to effect theirjescape 
from the tower by murdering (he lieutenant, he was hanged 
at Tyburn, and the Earl was beheaded. 

3. After a prosperous reign of about 24 years, Henry be- 
gan to think of preparing for the last and trying scene of 
life; having ordered in his will that restoration should be 
made to all whom he might have injured, he died in the 
52d year of his age. Henry in many respects, may be 
considered if not the most conspicious, at least one of the 
most useful monarchs that occupied the throne of England 
from the days of Alfred. He was a prince equally distin- 
guished for his wisdom in the cabinet and conduct in the 
field ; he enacted many wise and salutary laws ; encour- 
aged industry and extended commerce ; allowed the nobles 
to dispose of their estates, by which means their power 
was weakened, while property and equality were more 
widely diffused among all orders of the state. 



232 ENGLAND. 

4. It was during his reign that Christopher Columbus, a 
native of Genoa, sailed on his celebrated voyage by which 
he discovered the Western World. Accident alone pre- 
vented Henry from having a share in that honorable enter- 
prize. However, a few years after the first voyage made 
by Columbus, the English monarch employed Sebastain 
Cabot, a native of Bristol, who discovered the mainland of 
America, also the Isle of Newfoundland and the coast of Vir- 
ginia. The greatest stain upon the character of this mon- 
arch was his avarice ; by his frugality and exactions, he accu- 
mulated immense wealth, and at his death he is said to have 
left in money the sum of £1,800,000, equal to £10,000,000 
at the present day. 

5. Henry VIII. succeeded to the throne under the most 
favorable auspices ; his title to the crown was undisputed ; 
the treasury well filled ; the nation at peace ; the country- 
prosperous and happy. He possessed every quality that 
might endear him to the affections of his people ; he was 
in the 18th year of his age, of a handsome person, polite 
in his deportment, frank and open in his disposition, and 
possessed an accomplished education. But we will see in 
the sequel of his history, that all these promising qualities 
as he advanced in years, degenerated into the most detesta- 
ble vices, and that Henry became one of the most cruel, un- 
principled and rapacious tyrants that ever disgraced a throne. 

6. By his prodigality and profusion he soon exhausted 
the treasury, which he found replenished when he ascended 
the throne. In the early part of his reign, he declared war 
against Louis XII. of France, invaded his dominions, and 
gained over him the battle of the Spurs ; (so called from 
the flight of the French cavalry,) but failed to improve his 
good fortune, and after taking Taurney, returned to Eng- 
land. About the same time, the Scots, who had made 
an incursion into the northern parts of his dominions, were 
defeated by the Earl of Surrey, at Flodden Field, where 
James the IV. of Scotland, with the greater part of his no- 
bility was slain. He was also somewhat involved in that 
long and bloody contest between Charles V. of Germany, 
and Francis the I. of France. 

7. About this period, Henry wrote a book against Luther, 
the celebrated Reformer, on which account he was styled 
by the pope " Defender of the Faith ;" a title which is still 
retained by his successors to the present day. The most 
memorable transactions of Henry's reign, were his matri- 
monial alliances and the consequence that followed from 



ENGLAND. 233 

them. His first wife was Catherine of Jlrragon, daugh- 
ter of Ferdinand of Spain, who had formerly been con- 
tracted to his brother Arthur, who died before the marriage 
was consummated. 

8. Among her maids of honor, the queen had Ann the 
fair and beautiful daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn. This 
accomplished lady then in the bloom of youth, so captivated 
the king's affections, that he resolved to make her his wife. 
But his prior marriage with Catherine, presented an obstacle 
that no other but valid sentence of divorce could remove. 
He had been contracted to Catherine at an early period, 
through the influence of his father, and married shortly after 
he ascended the throne. But now after living with her for 18 
years, he began to feel conscientious scruples respecting his 
marriage, on account of her having been the wife of his bro- 
ther, and applied to Clement the VII. for a divorce. The 
pope, unwilling to grant his request, from time to time held 
him in suspense, hoping that delay might change the mind of 
the English monarch. In his prime minister, the celebra- 
ted Cardinal Wolsey, Henry expected to find an obsequious 
agent. But perceiving that the Cardinal did not meet his 
expectations, he resolved on his ruin, and ordered him to be 
arrested for high treason. 

9. This extraordinary man was born at Ipswich in Suf- 
folk, of humble parentage, but gifted with superior talents 
and great abilities, he rose to the highest, preferments in 
church and state ; having been elevated to the arch-episco- 
pal see of York, then created cardinal, and soon afterwards 
Lord High Chancellor of England, and prime Minister. 
The fame of his talents, riches and power, was known 
throughout all Europe. On his way from York to London, 
to stand his trial, he stopped at Leicester Jlbby, where he 
died after a short illness. A few moments before his death 
he uttered these remarkable words, in reference to the in- 
gratitude of his sovereign: "If I had served my God as 
faithfully as 1 have served my king, he would not have 
abandoned me in my gray hairs." From the fate of this 
great man, we may demonstrate the instability of human 
greatness and the weakness of human power. 

10. In the mean time the king pushed forward the di- 
vorce with all his energy. The see of Canterbury having 
become vacant, he pitched upon the famous Cranmer to fill 
it ; in this man Henry found a ready instrument, not only 
to accomplish his present wish, but also to serve him in 
similar circumstances on a future occasion. Growing irn= 
10* 



234 ENGLAND. 

patient of delay, and failing to obtain the pope's consent 
for the divorce, he resolved to carry the measure without 
his consent. For this purpose he assembled a court over 
which Cranmer presided ; the tribunal after a short delib- 
eration, pronounced his marriage with Catherine invalid, 
and immediately proceeded to grant the divorce. The 
king, whose amorous affections would not permit him to 
delay, had been previously married to Ann Boleyn, even 
before he had received the decision of the court appointed 
to annul his marriage with Catherine. 

11. Henry now threw off all restraint; abolished the 
papal jurisdiction in England, and caused himself by act of 
parliament, to be proclaimed head of the English church. 
He arrogated to himself infallibility, and condemned all both 
Catholics and Protestants to the stake, who held opinions 
contrary to his own. The venerable bishop Fisher, and 
the celebrated Thomas More, then high Chancellor, were 
brought to the scaffold, for refusing to acknowledge his 
supremacy. By an act of parliament, the monasteries in 
England, to the number of 600, were suppressed, besides 
a much greater number of other religious institutions ; their 
estates were converted to the use of the crown, and their 
revenues swept into the royal exchequer. Speaking of 
these institutions, Mr. Collier says: "To the abbeys, we 
are indebted for most of our best historians, both church 
and state ; the.youth there had their education with little 
charge to their parents ; the nobility and gentry, a credible 
way of providing for their younger children." 

12. But Henry did not stop here, he even extended his 
rapacious hand from the dwellings of the living to the silent 
repose of the tomb. He plundered the rich shrine of St. 
Thomas, of Canterbury, despoiled it of its ornaments of 
gold and silver, converting the whole to the royal treasury; 
then ordering the Saint to be indicted for high treason, com- 
mitted against his sovereign, Henry II., he condemned him 
as a traitor; his bones were dug up and scattered to the 
wind. 

13. In less than three years after his late marriage, he 
caused the new queen Ann, to be condemned and beheaded 
for real or imputed crimes, and on the day after her execu- 
tion, he married Jane Seymore, who died shortly after the 
birth of Prince Edward. His fourth wife was Ann, of 
Cleves, from whom he obtained a divorce, because he had 
been deceived in the estimate he had formed of her personal 
appearance. Thomas Cromwell, who was the son of a 
blacksmith in Putney, now created earl of Essex, and 



ENGLAND. 235 

prime minister, having been instrumental in bringing about 
the unhappy marriage, lost the favor of the king and suf- 
fered on the scaffold. His sixth wife was Catherine How- 
ard, who also, ended her days on the scaffold, in a few 
months after her exaltation to the throne. His last wife 
was Catherine Par, the widow of Lord Latimer, whose 
life was saved by the death of the king, which took place 
in the 37th year of his reign, and 56th of his age, A. D. 
1547. 

14. Henry was succeeded by his son Edward VI., in the 
10th year of his age, the duke of Somerset, his uncle, 
being appointed protector of the kingdom during his minor- 
ity. The reign of this prince is distinguished by the im- 
portant change in the religion of the realm. During the 
reign of his father, the principles of the reformation which 
had been introduced into the kingdom, were now patronized 
and tolerated. By degrees the forms of the ancient church 
were removed in order to make place for those of the new. 
A new liturgy in the English language, and a book of Com- 
mon Prayer, were composed by archbishop Cranmer. By 
the adoption of this liturgy, which was done by act of par- 
liament, all the rights and ceremonies of the Catholic 
church, were abolished, and a form of worship, nearly re- 
sembling that of the present church of England, established 
throughout the kingdom. 

15. The young king, who possessed many amiable qual- 
ities, was suddenly carried off by death, in the 16th year 
of his age. Previously, however, he had been prevailed 
on by the influence and intrigues of the duke of Northum- 
berland, the protector, to set aside his two sisters Mary and 
Elizabeth, and to leave the crown to Lady Jane Grey, who 
had married Lord Guilford Dudley, the son of the protec- 
tor. Through the influence of her friends, Lady Jane 
Grey was immediately proclaimed on the death of Edward, 
but after wearing the crown for ten days, she resigned the 
ensigns of royalty and retired again into a private station. 
After this unsuccessful attempt of Northumberland, to 
snatch the crown from the brow of the rightful heir, Mary 
the sister of Edward, quietly succeeded to the throne. 

16. The duke of Northumberland and two others, were 
the only persons who suffered on the scaffold to atone for 
this conspiracy against their lawful sovereign. Lady Jane, 
who was considered as a mere instrument in the hands of 
the duke, to work out his ambitious designs, was pardoned 
by the queen. But shortly after this, a second conspiracy 



236 ENGLAND. 

was entered into against Mary, at the head of which ap- 
peared the duke of Suffolk and his brother; they were de- 
feated and atoned for their rebellion, by the sacrifice of 
their lives. 

17. Mary, who had been much blamed for her lenient 
conduct, at the termination of the former conspiracy, was 
now induced by the urgent persuasion of her ministers, to 
sign a warrant for the execution of Lady Jane Grey and 
her husband. On the fatal morning, permission was given 
them to take leave of each other; the indulgence Jane re- 
fused, saying, that they would shortly meet in heaven. 
From the window of her cell she saw her husband led to 
execution, and his bleeding corpse brought back to the 
chapel. When led forth herself, she mounted the scaffold 
with a firm step ; she acknowledged in a few w r ords to the 
spectators her fault, in consenting to the treason of North- 
umberland, although she was not one of the original con- 
spirators ; and after repeating a psalm, she laid her head 
upon the block ; at one stroke of the axe, it was severed 
from the body. 

18. Mary has been much censured in consenting to the 
execution of this unfortunate lady. It is true that her life 
had been spared, as a pledge for the loyalty of the house 
of Suffolk ; that pledge had been forfeited by the late re- 
bellion of the duke ; but still, " it would have been to the 
honor of Mary," as Dr. Lingard observes, " to have over- 
looked the provocation and refused to visit on the daughter, 
the guilt of the father." Mary, in the second year of her 
reign, married Philip II., of Spain, a measure unpopular at 
the time, and productive of much unhappiness to herself; 
and towards the close of her reign, the French took Calais, 
which had remained in possession of the English for up- 
wards of 210 years. This event hastened her death; 
she never seemed to recover from the stroke, and was 
often heard to say, that the word Calais, was written on 
her heart. She died in the 46th year of her age, after a 
reign of six years, A. D. 1558. 

19. The foulest blot upon the memory of this queen, is 
her persecution of the Reformers,* during her reign. It 
might be remarked, not however, in vindication of her acts, 
but as an apology for her conduct, that she lived at a time 
when the principles of religious toleration were not under- 
stood or practiced, by either Catholics or Protestants ; when 

*Tbe principal sufferers were Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley and Hooper, 



ENGLAND. 237 

the extirpation of erroneous doctrines, was inculcated as a 
duty, by the leaders of every religious party. It was the 
misfortune, rather than the fault of Mary, that she was not 
more enlightened, than the wisest of her cotemporaries. 
With the exception of this, she is regarded even by many 
of those writers, who differed from her in religion, as a 
queen possessed of many amiable qualities ; they have 
borne honorable testimony to her virtues ; have allotted to 
her the praise of piety and clemency, of compassion for 
the poor, and liberality to the distressed. " The queen's 
private life," says Mr. Collier, " was all along strict and 
unblemished. The other world was always uppermost 
with her ; she valued her conscience above her crown. She 
was not of a vindictive or implacable spirit." 

20. As Mary had always remained firm in the belief and 
practice of the Catholic faith, one of her first measures was 
to restore the ancient religion of the kingdom, the public 
exercise of which had been nearly extinguished, during the 
reign of her brother. 

21. Upon the death of Mary, her sister, Elizabeth, as- 
cended the throne. Elizabeth, during the reign of her sister 
had been apparently a zealous Catholic, but shortly after 
her accession, she threw off the mask, openly avowed her- 
self the protectress of the reformers, established the Prot- 
estant faith, as the religion of the realm, assumed the title 
of supreme head of the English church, and revived all the 
panel statutes, against non-conformists, to which were ad- 
ded many others of the most oppressive nature.* It was 
made high treason to deny the queen's supremacy, or ac- 
knowledge the jurisdiction of the see of Rome within her 
dominions ; to absolve, persuade or withdraw, any one from 
the established to the Catholic church ; to be educated in a 
Catholic seminary beyond the sea; and any person know- 
ing or harboring a Jesuit or priest, within the queen's do- 
minions, and not discovering it, was liable to be fined and 
imprisoned at the queen's pleasure. 

22. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, the grand daughter 
of Henry VIII., was the next heir to the English throne. 
This fact did not fail to excite the fears and jealousy of 
Elizabeth, who never ceased in her resentment, until she 
brought her unhappy cousin, to a premature and tragical 
end. The young queen of Scotland had been renowned 
throughout Europe for her beauty and accomplishments ; 

*Eliz. Act, 23—27, 



238 ENGLAND. 

she had been educated at the French court, and married 
Francis II., who died shortly after that event, and Mary 
returned to her own dominions. After a strange succession 
of events, which come more properly under the head of 
Scotland, the Scottish queen was compelled to quit her do- 
minions, and take refuge in England, where she was de- 
tained in captivity for nearly 20 years, and finally put to 
death by order of her cousin Elizabeth. 

23. In 1588, Philip of Spain projected the invasion of 
England, to avenge the queen's interference with his sub- 
jects of the Netherlands, who had revolted against his au- 
thority. For this purpose, he fitted out the Invincible Ar- 
mada, which consisted of 150 ships, carrying 3,000 pieces 
of cannon and 27,000 men. It entered the English chan- 
nel in the form of a crescent, and extended to the distance 
of seven miles. It was met by the English fleet, under the 
command of Lord Admiral Howard, aided by Drake, 
Hawkins, Frobisher, and Raleigh. Being gradually weak- 
ened and dispersed by a violent storm, the Invincible Ar- 
mada was completely overthrown ; only one-third of the 
vessels, with 6,000 men returned to Spain. 

24. In the administration of the government, Elizabeth 
was assisted by many eminent statesmen ; among whom 
were Bacon, Burleigh and Walsingham ; but her chief fa- 
vorites were men of abandoned characters. Of these, in 
the early part of her reign, was the earl of Leicester ; and 
after his death, the earl of Essex, seemed to hold the first 
place in the queen's affections. Elizabeth and Essex had 
various quarrels and reconciliations ; at last, unable to res- 
train the impetuosity of his temper, he broke out in open 
rebellion against her, for which he atoned by his deatli on 
the scaffold. 

25. After the death of Essex, the health of the queen 
visibly declined. At length she fell into a profound melan- 
choly, which nothing could alleviate, and terminated her 
life in sorrow and gloom. All the splendor of royalty faded 
from her view, the time was come, to use her own expres- 
sion, when "men would turn from the setting, to worship 
the rising sun." She expired in the 70th year of her age, 
and in the 45th of her reign. 

26. Elizabeth possessed eminent abilities as a sovereign, 
and was distinguished for her talents in directing public 
affairs. In principles, she was despotic, jealous, cruel and 
revengeful ; overbearing to her ministers in council ; im- 
pervious to her servants in the palace ; and her conversa- 



ENGLAND. 239 

tion was often grossly profane. In her private character, 
she was even less to be admired. She possessed few of 
those milder and softer qualities that adorn the female char- 
acter. Her reign was distinguished for men of genius and 
learning; among whom Bacon, Shakspeare, and Spen- 
cer, were the most distinguished. The custom of smok- 
ing tobacco was introduced by Sir Walter Raleigh; and 
potatoes were also brought to England from America at 
this period. 



SECTION VIII. 

Stuart Family ; James I. ; Charles I. ; the Common- 
wealth; Cromwell i Charles II. ; James II; William 
and Mary; Anne ; from A. D. 1603 to 1714. 

1. Elizabeth shortly before her death, nominated as her 
successor, James the VI. of Scotland, who was the rightful 
heir by descent. On ascending the English throne, he took 
the title of James I., and thus were the crowns of the two 
kingdoms united. Shortly after his arrival in England, a 
conspiracy was formed against him in favor of his cousin 
Arabella Stuart. It was prematurely discovered, and Sir 
Walter Raleigh, under a charge of being concerned in the 
plot, was sentenced to death, which was carried into execu- 
tion after he had languished in prison with little inter- 
mission for fifteen years. 

2. Another conspiracy followed of a more serious nature. 
This was the famous Gunpowder Plot, which was a design 
of a few daring adventurers to blow up the parliament 
house, and involve in one common ruin the king, lords and 
commons. It was fortunately discovered on the eve of its 
accomplishment, and one of the leaders named Guy Faiukes, 
was taken with matches in his pocket for firing the maga- 
zine. 

3. It was the misfortune of James to be attached to un- 
worthy favorites, such as the Earl of Somerset and the 
Duke of Buckingham, men whose only merits were their 
personal appearance and superficial accomplishments. Dur- 
ing the reign of Mary, the Puritans made their first appear- 
ance in England, and during the last reign their number had 
greatly increased. At the accession of James, who had 



240 ENGLAND. 

been educated a Presbyterian, they flattered themselves that 
their views would meet the royal approbation. Being dis- 
appointed in their expectations, some of their number 
sought an asylum from restraint in matters of religion in 
the wilds of America, and formed a settlement on the shores 
of New England. 

4. In 1625 the king was seized with an il'ness which 
terminated his life in the 59th year of his age and the 22d 
of his reign over England. James possessed many virtues 
but few free from the contagion of the neighboring vices. 
His generosity bordered on profusion; his learning on 
pedantry ; his friendship on a puerile fondness. His leading 
passion seems to have been a love of arbitrary power. The 
divine right of kings to govern without control, was with 
him a favorite theme. Being naturally averse to war, his 
reign was peaceful. He was fond of flattery, which was 
dealt out to him with an unsparing hand by his bishops and 
courtiers, who regarded him as the British Solomon, yet 
by others he seems to have merited the appellation given 
him by the Duke of Sully, that of the " wisest of the fools 
of Europe." 

5. Charles I. succeeded his father to the throne, under 
many apparent advantages. He had not assumed the reins 
of government long, before he proved that he had imbibed the 
arbitrary principles of his father ; he patronized the same 
unworthy favorite, Buckingham,) who still retained all his 
former influence and authority. He married Henrietta 
Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France, a princess dis- 
tinguished for her devotedness to her husband throughout 
all the eventful scenes of his life. 

6. The refusal of the parliament to grant adequate sup- 
plies, to enable him to carry on a war against France and 
Spain, led Charles to adopt the resolution of ruling without 
their aid, and of levying money without their authority. 
This manifestation of a tyrannical disposition on the part 
of the king, first roused the parliament against him. 
Charles could not brook the denial of supplies, dissolved 
the parliament, and issued a warrant for borrowing money 
of his subjects. 

7. After an unsuccessful expedition against France, Buck- 
ingham, who had long since rendered himself detestable to 
the parliament, was assassinated by one Felton. The death 
of his favorite, however, did not deter Charles from his ar- 
bitrary proceedings. A new parliament was formed, as 
uncompromising as the former, and exhibited a spirit of 



ENGLAND. 241 

determined opposition. A petition of rights was passed 
by both houses, which declared the illegality of raising mo- 
ney without their sanction, or of enforcing loans from the 
subjects, and annulled all taxes imposed without the con- 
sent of parliament. 

8. At this period, the current of public feeling seemed 
to run strongly in favor of Puritanism, which had been on 
the ascendency since the accession of James to the English 
throne. Charles now proceeded to a very injudicious and 
unpopular measure, which was to enforce, throughout his 
kingdom, a strict conformity to the liturgy of the church 
of England ; and through the indiscreet zeal of archbishop 
Laud, the measure was rigidly enforced. Not satisfied 
with attempting to enforce the liturgy in England, the king 
endeavored to impose the new liturgy upon the national 
church of Scotland. Here the measure met with the most 
determined opposition, and excited the strongest sensations 
among all ranks of people ; an association was entered into 
called the National Covenant, by which the parties bound 
themselves by oath to resist all religious innovations. 

9. After eleven years of intermission, the king found 
himself obliged again to convoke the parliament; but that 
body instead of listening to his demand for supplies, began 
with presenting the public grievances, complaining of the 
infringement of the privileges of parliament, illegal taxa- 
tion and the violence done to the cause of religion. Charles 
finding that nothing could be obtained from this assembly, 
so determined to oppose all his measures, dissolved the 
parliament, but shortly afterwards convoked another. 

10. One of the first acts of the new parliament, was the 
impeachment of the Earl of Strafford, the minister of 
State, and Archbishop Laud, on a charge of endeavoring 
to subvert the constitution, and to introduce arbitrary power. 
Strafford was arraigned for trial before the house of peers ; 
his defense on this occasion, is said to have been one of the 
most pathetic pieces of eloquence ever delivered ; but noth- 
ing could save him from the vengeance of his enemies ; he 
was found guilty, sentenced, and beheaded. This was a 
severe stroke to the king, who lost in the Earl, a faithful 
minister and the firmest supporter of the prerogative of the 
crown. 

11. The contention between the king and the parliament 
from this period, began to wear a more alarming aspect, 
until at last both parties resolved to decide the issue of the 



242 ENGLAND. 

contest by an appeal to the sword. Thus the standard of 
civil war was unfurled during the year 1642. 

The first serious overthrow of the royal forces, happened 
at Marston Moor, where Charles and Prince Rupert, were 
defeated by Oliver Cromwell, who commanded the parlia- 
ment forces. After this victory, Archbishop Laud, who 
had remained a prisoner in the tower since the impeach- 
ment of Strafford, was brought to trial, condemned, and 
executed: and on the same day, the liturgy of the church 
of England was abolished, and the rigid principles of puri- 
tanism established in its place. 

12. After the war had raged about five years, the royal- 
ists were entirely defeated in the battle of Naseby, and 
Charles very imprudently surrendered himself to the Scot- 
tish army, by which he was basely delivered into the hands 
of the parliament, for the sum of .£400,000. In the house 
of commons a vote was passed, declaring it treason in a 
king to levy war against his parliament, and instituted a 
high court of justice, composed of 133 members, to try 
Charles for that offense. This measure was rejected by 
the house of lords, but the commons, supported by the 
parliamentary army, disregarded their dissent, and issued 
an order for the trial. The king having been arraigned be- 
fore this self-created tribunal, refused to answer any ques- 
tions put to him, disavowed its legality, and denied its ju- 
risdiction; but all was of no avail; his enemies thirsted for 
his blood, and nothing less than his death would satisfy 
their vengeance. The trial proceeded; Charles was found 
guilty, and the sentence of death was pronounced against 
him, as a tyrant, murderer, and traitor. 

13. He bore the sentence of death and all the unworthy 
treatment he received on his trial, with a degree of forti- 
tude that excited the admiration even of his enemies. Per- 
mission was given him to see his children. He took his 
last leave of them with tenderness and affection, and spent 
the short respite that was allowed him, in private devotions 
with Juxton, Bishop of London, in order to prepare him- 
self for the trying scene, through which he was about to 
pass. On reaching the scaffold, which was erected before 
Whitehall, he surveyed the preparations with a counte- 
nance undismayed, addressed a few words to those who 
were near him, declared his innocence, and freely forgave 
his enemies; he then laid his head upon the block, and at 
the first stroke of the axe, it was severed from the body. 



FRANCE. 243 

Such was the unhappy end of Charles I., in the 49th year 
of his age, and 24th of his reign. 

14. If we take a survey of this period, we will find 
much to admire and much to condemn. That Charles had 
committed errors in the administration of the government, 
is obvious to all ; but that these errors were such as to 
sanction the proceedings against him, few are willing to ad- 
mit. That many of those who first opposed his arbitrary 
measures, were actuated by a sense of justice, and a desire 
of maintaining the liberties of the people, may be admit- 
ted; while the result will show, that there were others who 
only aimed at hurling the monarch from his throne, that 
they themselves, might exercise his arbitrary principles. 
The house of commons ordered a new Great Seal to be 
made, bearing these words, " On the first year of freedom, 
by God's blessing, restored, 1648." The king's statue in 
the exchange, was thrown down, and on the pedestal was 
inscribed, Exit Tyrannus, Begum ultimas, — the tyrant 
is gone, the last of the kings. 

15. After the death of the king, the commons proceeded 
to abolish the monarchy and the house of lords, and to es- 
tablish a republican form of government. A proclamation 
was issued, stating that the supreme authority of the na- 
tion, was vested in the representatives of the people, and 
it should be high treason to give to any person the title of 
king without the consent of parliament. Nothing perhaps, 
in the history of this period, is more remarkable than the 
sudden revolutions in religion. After the execution of 
Laud, we have seen that the Episcopacy was abolished, 
and Presbyterianism established in its stead ; we are now to 
behold the Presbyterian interest decline, in favor of the In- 
dependents, who began to gain the ascendency. Through 
the management of Cromwell, the power which had been 
vested in the king, was transferred to the army, and meas- 
ures were taken to exclude the Presbyterians from parlia- 
ment. In this manner the Presbyterians, who had been 
instrumental in subverting the church and throne, fell vic- 
tims to the power of the army, through whose agency they 
had accomplished their designs. 

16. The people of Ireland and Scotland were still faith- 
ful in their allegiance to the fallen monarch, and unfurled 
the royal standard in favor of his son, Charles II. Crom- 
well, having procured for himself the appointment of com- 
mander-in-chief of the forces directed against Ireland, land- 
ed at Dublin} thence he proceeded to Drogheda, which 



244 ENGLAND. 

was well fortified and garrisoned with 3,000 men, under 
the command of Sir Arthur Aston. The place was final- 
ly taken by a furious assault, and only one, of all the garri- 
son, escaped the barbarous massacre thai followed ; after this 
the country submitted to his authority. 

17. He next marched into Scotland at the head of 16,- 
000 men, defeated the royalists at Dunbar, overthrew them 
again in the desperate battle of Worcester, and completely 
established the sovereignty of the parliament. After this bat- 
tle, young Charles having with difficulty escaped from the 
scene of defeat, assumed the disguise of a peasant, and 
traveled in the least frequented roads, pursuing his journey 
by night, and frequently passing the day in obscure cot- 
tages. On one occasion he passed the day concealed in 
the branches of a large oak; while in this situation, he 
heard and saw his pursuers passing beneath hirm After 
many adventures, he effected his escape to France. 

18. At this period, the republic astonished all Europe by 
the brilliancy of its naval achievements. The famous nav- 
igation act, which prohibited any state from carrying into 
England, any commodity which was not the growth or 
manufacture of the country to which the vessel belonged, 
produced a war with Holland, in which Admiral Blake 
obtained a great naval victory over the celebrated Dutch 
commanders, Van Tromp and Be Ruyter. 

19. The parliament, which had been in session for eleven 
years, and known by the name of the Long Parliament, 
attempted to reduce the army, with a view of diminishing 
the power of Cromwell, who, perceiving their design, and 
being secure of the attachment of the soldiery, resolved to 
wrest the sovereign power from their hands. An unfavor- 
able reply being returned to a petition, which he sent to 
parliament, he rose in a violent rage, and taking with him 
a strong guard, he entered the house with marks of indig- 
nation in his countenance, and after loading the members 
with reproaches, he cried out, " For shame; get you gone ; 
give place to. honest men. I tell you, you are no longer a 
parliament; the Lord has done with you." Having turned 
them out, he ordered the doors to be locked, and taking the 
keys, he departed to his residence at Whitehall. 

20. He then called a new parliament in quite a novel 
form. He took the census of the congregational churches 
in the several counties, and reported the names of such per- 
sons as were deemed qualified to fill the high office ; of 
these, 163 representatives were selected, and on the day 



ENGLAND. 245 

appointed, presented themselves, to the number of 120, in 
the council chamber at Whitehall. This body, composed 
of men imbued with all the fanaticism of the time, receiv- 
ed the name of the Barebone Parliament, from one of its 
leading members, who bore the singular name of Praise- 
God Barebone. The Barebone Parliament, after a session 
of a few months, resigned all their authority into the hands 
of Cromwell, a measure which he had probably intended 
or expected. The parliament immediately dissolved, and 
the officers of the army, by their sole authority, declared 
Cromwell Protector of the commonwealth of England. 

21. The Protector entered on the duties of his new office, 
with energy and ability. He was assisted by a council of 
twenty-one members, declined the title of majesty, but re- 
ceived that of highness ; refused the title of king, although 
he possessed the power and assumed all the ensigns of roy- 
alty. His administration, however, advanced the military 
glory of England. Abroad, his fleets and armies were vic- 
torious ; he obliged the Dutch to sue for peace and humbled 
the power of Spain. 

22. Having attained the height of his ambition, Crom- 
well found that his situation was by no means enviable. 
The nation despised the man, who under the pretense of 
espousing the liberties of the people, had aspired to unlim- 
ited power. He was aware of this hatred, and the dread 
of assassination caused him to wear armor under his clothes. 
His health began to decline, and he was at length seized 
with a fever which terminated his life in the 59th year of 
his age, A. D. 1658. 

23. His son, Richard Cromwell, who inherited neither 
the abilities nor the ambition of his father, was proclaimed 
Protector in his place; but after holding the office for a few 
months, he resigned the title and retired to private life. A 
military despotism for some time succeeded, the army 
directing the affairs of government at will. At length 
General Monk, who then commanded an army in Scotland, 
marched into England, crushed the contending factions and 
caused a new parliament to be assembled. After the meet- 
ing of the members, some time intervened before the king 
was mentioned. At length they were informed that a mes- 
senger was at the door, with a letter from the king to the 
commons. The letter was received and read, the parlia- 
ment assented to the proposals, and in this manner, Charles 
II. was restored to his kingdom and to the throne of his 
father, A. D, 1660. 



248 ENGLAND, 

24. The whole demeanor of Charles at the commence- 
ment of his reign, was such as to inspire the affection of his 
subjects and to render him generally popular. He was in 
the 30th year of his age, possessing a handsome exterior, 
familiar and affable in his manners ; but at the same time, 
much inclined to indolence and pleasure. An act of general 
indemnity was passed, except to those immediately con- 
cerned in the late king's death. Accordingly, Harrison, 
Scot, Jones, and several others, engaged in the trial of his 
father, were executed. But the vengeance of the king 
passed from the living to the dead ; the bodies of Crom- 
well, Bradshaw and Ireton, were dug up from their graves, 
and after hanging for some time, were cut down and buried 
under the gallows. 

25. Charles was soon distinguished for the same arbi- 
trary principles, which seemed hereditary in the family of 
the Stuarts. The doctrine of passive obedience and non- 
resistance, now came into use ; from which, originated the 
distinguishing epithets, of Whigs, and Tories ; the former 
opposed to the pretentions of the crown, the latter its ad- 
vocates. A new parliament was assembled, consisting 
chiefly of high-churchmen and loyalists ; the episcopacy 
was restored and an act of conformity in religion was 
passed. 

26. The next year Charles married Catherine, of Por- 
tugal, and with her obtained a dowery of 500,000 pounds, 
a sum which greatly relieved his present necessities. But 
his prodigality kept him always in want; he next bartered 
away Dunkirk, which had been acquired by Cromwell, to 
the French for 400,000 pounds sterling, which was soon 
squandered on his pleasure. He soon after this declared 
war against the Dutch, which continued to rage for several 
years, until at length a treaty of peace was concluded, by 
which the Dutch ceded the colony of New York to the 
English. 

27. During this war, London was visited with a plague, 
which carried off 90,000 of its inhabitants ; and in the fol- 
lowing year, a fire took place by which 13,000 houses were 
laid in ruins. To perpetuate the calumny, a monument 
was erected, bearing an inscription, falsely charging the 
Roman Catholics as the authors of the conflagration ; the 
inscription has lately been erased by the order of parlia- 
ment. 

28. Towards the close of the reign of Charles, the 
Whigs, having the ascendency in parliament, distinguished 



ENGLAND, 247 

themselves by their hostility to the Catholics, and insisted 
on the king's assent to a bill for the exclusion of his brother, 
the duke of York, who had lately embraced the Catholic 
faith. To this highly unjust and unnatural measure, the 
king could not consent, and in consequence, dissolved two 
successive parliaments. A pretended plot was discovered 
by the infamous Titus Oats, (a man guilty of almost every 
crime in the catalogue of human vices,) which occasioned 
the unjust execution of Lord Stafford and several other 
eminent Catholics. Another conspiracy was shortly after 
detected, in favor of reform, called the Bye-House Plot ; 
in which Lord Russel and Algernon Sydney, were accused 
of being concerned. They were brought to trial, found 
guilty and beheaded. 

29. The king himself did not long survive these acts of 
severity ; being seized with an apoplexy, he died in the 
55th year of his age and 25th of his reign. Shortly before 
his death, he sent for a Catholic clergyman and received 
the sacraments from his hands. During the reign of Charles, 
the famous act of habeas corpus was passed, by which 
persons were freed from arbitrary imprisonment. The 
most distinguished poets of this period, were Butler, Cot- 
ton, Dryden, Otway and Roscommon. A remarkable in- 
stance of longevity is mentioned of Thomas Parr, a labor- 
ing man in Yorkshire, who had lived in ten reigns and 
completed 160 years. 

30. As Charles had left no legitimate issue, his brother, 
the duke of York, succeeded to the throne, under the title 
of James II., with every mark of public approbation, hot- 
withstanding his open profession of the Catholic faith. It 
is probable that James might have reigned in tranquility, 
and have ended his days on the throne of his ancestors, had 
it not been for his own imprudence and the unfortunate 
choice he made of his ministers. The early part of his 
reign, was disturbed by the rebellion of the duke of Mon- 
mouth, who aimed at seizing the crown. Encouraged by 
the prince of Orange and Sunderland, the perfidious min- 
ister of James, the duke landed in England, caused him- 
self to be proclaimed king, and unfurled his standard at 
Taunton. After wearing the empty title of royalty for a 
few weeks, he was defeated, taken prisoner and atoned for 
his rebellion on the scaffold. 

31. A special commission was issued to Jeffrys, the 
Lord Chief Justice, for the trial of the rebel prisoners. 
Jeffrys, in the execution of his commission, is represented 



248 ENGLAND. 

as guilty of wanton cruelty; for although there was no 
doubt of the guilt of the accused, yet the number of those 
who suffered, made the acts of public justice assume the 
appearance of cruelty and revenge ; while all the odium of 
these severities fell upon the king. 

32. James now finding himself firmly seated upon the 
throne, proceeded to a measure that did not fail to excite the 
disaffection of a great number of his subjects. As he had 
openly professed the Catholic faith, it was his ardent wish 
to restore the ancient religion of the kingdom. By way 
of preparation for this important step, the king, on the 4th 
of April, 1687, from his royal prerogative, issued a procla- 
mation, granting to all his subjects, entire liberty to worship 
God, according to the dictates of their own conscience. 
This indulgent grant, so honorable to the sovereign, so de- 
sirable on the part of a free people, and so suitable to the 
mild spirit of Christianity, was joyfully received by the 
Catholics and dissenters of all denominations; by others, 
it was loudly censured, as tending to overthrow the national 
church established by law, which they still conceived neces- 
sary for its support. 

33. Another proclamation granting full liberty of con- 
science, followed during the April of 1688, which was or- 
dered to be read in every church and chapel in the king- 
dom, after the service had ended. This order occasioned 
considerable opposition, and six of the bishops, who resist- 
ed the mandate, were immediately committed to the tower 
and indicted for disobedience. 

34. The contest with the bishops completed the king's 
unpopularity ; his enemies, without being suspected, had 
prepared the kingdom for a general revolt; they secretly 
applied for aid to the prince of Orange, the son-in-law of 
James, and offered him the crown as the reward of his ser- 
vices. On receiving this invitation, William, with the ut- 
most expedition, fitted out a fleet of 500 sail, carrying 
4,000 men, and landed in England. In a few days, he was 
joined by the greater part of the English army ; and James 
found himself deserted, even by those who owed all to his 
bounty. Among others who left him in the hour of dis- 
tress, was his favorite daughter Anne, who secretly with- 
drew to join the standard of the man, who had invaded the 
dominions of her father, and was about to snatch the crown 
from his brow. 

35. At the news of the ungrateful conduct of the daugh- 
ter Whom he tenderly loved, his constancy gave way and 



ENGLAND. 249 

in bitter anguish he exclaimed : "God help me! My own 
children have forsaken me in my utmost need." Having 
previously sent his queen and infant son, the prince of 
Wales, to the French court, he shortly after followed, leav- 
ing his kingdom in the power of his rival. 

36. After the king's departure, a convention met, con- 
sisting of members of the house of commons during the 
reign of Charles II., as those of James were deemed ille- 
gal. They declared that James, by quitting the kingdom, 
had deserted the people, (although it was evident, that the 
people had deserted him,) and that the throne was vacant. 
They passed a bill, excluding the Roman Catholics from 
office, and settled the crown on the prince of Orange and 
the princess, and their heirs; but the administration of the 
government was placed in the hands of the prince alone. 

37. After some time spent in France, James resolved to 
make an effort to regain his crown, through the loy-ilty of 
the people of Ireland, who still adhered to his interest. 
Having arrived at Kinsale, he made a public entrv into 
Dublin, amidst the acclamation of the inhabitants. In the 
year 1690, was fought the famous battle of the Boyne, be- 
tween the forces of the king and those of his rival William. 
The battle was maintained for some time, with equal bra- 
very on both sides ; at length, owing to the pusillanimity 
of James, who seeing his forces gaining some advantage 
over their opponents, cried out, *« to spare his English sub" 
jects," the scale of victory turned in favor of William. 

38. James fled from the scene of defeat, and escaped to 
France, where he remained a pensioner, on the bounty of 
the French king; the exiled monarch passed the remainder 
of his days at 67. Germans, where he gained the esteem 
of all who knew him, for his exemplary piety, and for his 
mildness and affability. He died in the 68th year of his 
age, A. D. 1701. 

William was naturally of a feeble constitution, which he 
endeavored to repair by exercise. As he rode from Hamp- 
ton court to Kingington, his collar-bone was fractured by 
falling from his horse ; this was followed by a fever, which 
terminated his life, in the 52d year of his age, and the 14th 
of his reign. The reign of William was memorable for 
the establishment of the bank of England. 

39. On the death of William, the crown devolved upon 
Anne, the second daughter of James II., who had married 
George, prince of Denmark. On coming to the throne, 
she communicated to the houses of parliament, her deter- 

11 



g^Q ENGLAND. 

mination of declaring war against France. In conjunction 
with Germany and Holland, war was accordingly declared. 
The duke of Marlborough, one of the greatest generals of 
his age, was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied 
army; prince Eugene commanded the imperial forces. 
Afier the power of Louis XIV. had been considerably 
weakened by the several victories of Blenheim, Ramilles, 
Oudenarde and Malplaquet, gained by the allied armies, 
the war was terminated by the peace of Utrecht, in the 
year 1713. 

40. The most memorable event of this reign, was the 
union between England and Scotland, which destroyed the 
Scottish parliament, and included the two countries under 
the common title of Great Britain. It was during the reign 
of Anne that Gibraltar was taken by the English, which 
has remained in their possession to the present time. At 
this period parly spirit was carried to extremes, and dis- 
tracted the kingdom during the greater part of her reign. 
The queen's health had been for some time on the decline ; 
at length she passed, from the turmoil and splendor of the 
palace, to the humble quietude of the tomb, in the 50th 
year of her age, and the 13th of her reign, A. D. 1714. 

This period has been so prolific, in men of genius, that 
it has been styled the Augustan Age of England. Some 
of the most distinguished names are those of Pope, Swift, 
Addison, Parnell, Rowe and Gay. (See their names in 
Biography.) 



SECTION IX. 

House of Brunswick s George I ; George II; George 
III.,- George IV.; William IV.; from A. B. 1714, 
to 1830. 

1. On the death of Anne, George I., elector of Hanover, 
succeeded to the throne, with the general approbation. The 
features of his reign were generally pacific and afford few 
events of importance in history. Upon assuming the reins 
of government, he attached himself to the whig party, 
which had strenuously advocated his accession, and entered 
4flto Violent measures against the late lory ministry. 



ENGLAND. 251 

2. A committee of investigation was appointed to inspect 
the papers relative to the treaty with France ; Lord Boling- 
broke, the earl of Oxford, and the earl of Mortimer, with 
several others of the tory party, were impeached for high 
treason. These vindictive proceedings excited the indig- 
nation 'of the people, and the flame of rebellion broke out 
in Scotland.. The earl of Mar, at the head of 10,000 men 
proclaimed the son of James II., as the lawful monarch of 
Great Britain. The rebellion, however, was soon crushed, 
and the most exemplary severity exercised against the lead- 
ers. Various lords and earls were impeached, and suffered 
death on the scaffold ; many others of inferior rank were 
executed, and about a thousand transported to North 
America. 

3. At this period a plan was devised for lessening the 
national debt, by lowering the interest, called the South 
Sea Scheme ; the measure, however, gave a severe stroke 
to public credit, and ruined the fortunes of thousands. 

George died suddenly of a paralytic disorder, while on a 
visit to his electoral dominions of Hanover, in the 68th 
year of his age, and the 13th of his reigns, A. D. 1727. 

4. George II., who succeeded his father in the 44th year 
of his age, was a prince possessed of considerable abilities, 
of a violent temper, and distinguished in military exercise. 
Like his father, he inclined to the whig party, and was par- 
ticularly biased in favor of his continental dominions, on 
account of which, he involved England in an expensive 
war. The most prominent person in the administration, 
during the reign of George, was Sir Robert Walpole, a 
man of eminent abilities, but accused by many, as guilty of 
a system of corruption and venality, which he practiced 
while in office. 

5. The military operations during this reign, were ex- 
tensive, and the British arms were generally triumphant. 
England espoused the cause of Maria Theresa of Austria, 
against the emperors, Charles and Louis XV. of France. 
In this contest, called the war of the Austrian Succession, 
the principal states of Europe were involved. Various 
was the success that attended the contending powers. The 
English with their allies, under the command of George 
III. hi person, defeated the French in the celebrated battle 
of Bet tin gen, and the French in their turn, under Marshal 
Saxe, gained the victory at Fontenoy. After war had raged 
for some time, peace was again restored by the treaty of 



252 ENGLAND. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, and the claim of Maria Theresa to the 
throne, was confirmed. 

6. During the absence of the king on the continent, 
Charles Edward, the eldest son of James II., assisted by 
Louis XV. of France, made a last and dying effort to re- 
gain the throne of his ancestors. He landed in Scotland, 
and placing himself at the head of an army, he defeated 
the royalists in the battles of Preston-Pans and Falkirk : 
but on the 16th of April, 1746, was fought the famous bat- 
tle of Culloden, in which Charles was signally defeated by 
the royal forces, under the Duke of Cumberland. By this 
battle, the hereditary pretensions to the crown of England, 
were forever extinguished ; the prince, after a series of ad- 
ventures, escaped to France. 

7. Towards the close of this reign, the war was again 
renewed between England and France, on account of the 
encroachments of the latter, on the British colonies in Amer- 
ica. The war was finally terminated by the surrender of 
all Canada on the part of France. It was during this war 
that the brave and illustrious Wolf, perished in the moment 
of achieving the capture of the city of Quebec. During 
their operations in America, the British also carried on a 
war in India. 

8. George II. died in 1760, at his palace of Kensington, 
in the 77th year of his age, and the 33d of his reign. His 
reign was distinguished for many eminent writers and men 
of genius ; among the poets, Young, Akinside, and Gray, 
stand pre-eminent. 

9. George III., the grand-son of the late monarch, suc- 
ceeded to the throne in the 18th year of his age. He com- 
menced his reign at a favorable period, when the national 
arms were every where triumphant, and the administration 
of the government, was directed by the genius of William, 
Pitt, (Lord Chatham,) one of the most eminent and popu- 
lar ministers in the annals of the nation. It was at this 
period, that an oppressive and unjust course of policy was 
adopted by the British government, towards her American 
colonies. Against these measures, Pitt exerted all the 
power of his eloquence, but in vain ; the colonies were 
finally driven into hostilities with the mother country, and 
Great Britain, after a long and expensive warfare, was com- 
pelled to acknowledge their independence. [See United 
States.'] 

10. The other most important events of this reign, were 
the extension of the British possessions in India-, Where 



ENGLAND. 253 

Hyder Ally and his son distinguished themselves, by their 
opposition to the encroachments of the English ; the Irish 
rebellion, which took place in 1798, and her subsequent 
union with Great Britain ; (see Ireland,) and her long and 
sanguinary conflicts, which grew out of the French Revo- 
lution. 

11. Some of the principal achievements of the British 
during this period, were the famous naval victories of the 
Nile and Trafalgar, bv Lord Nelson, and those of Tala- 
vera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo, by Wellington. 
George died on the 29th of January, 1820, in the 78th year 
of his age, after a reign of 60 years, the longest we find in 
English history. During the last ten years of his life, he 
was afflicted with insanity, which disqualified him for all 
public business, and his son, the prince of Wales, acted as 
regent. The subversion of his intellect is supposed to 
have been brought on by the death of his favorite Amilia, 
aided by advanced age and toils of state. His natural en- 
dowments were not great, although a good monarch, and 
much beloved by his subjects. 

12. George IV., who succeeded to the throne, was a 
prince, possessed of eminent abilities and talents. The 
early part of his life was distinguished for unrestrained dis- 
sipation and prodigality. His reign was generally peaceful 
and prosperous. Some of the most important events were 
the war in India, by which the English gained a great part 
of the Bur man Empire; the celebrated trial of his queen 
in the house of Lords, for misconduct; the interposition in 
favor of the Greeks, in their struggle for independence ; 
during which was gained the celebrated naval victory at 
Navarino, over the Turks, by the united fleets of Eng- 
land, France, and Russia; and also the passage of the 
Catholic Relief bill, by which the disabilities of the Ro- 
man Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland were removed, 
and by which they were placed on an equal footing with 
members of the established church, with three exceptions : 
exclusion from the throne, and from the office of Lord- 
lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Chancellor of that kingdom and 
of England. 

13. George IV. died at Windsor, on the 26th of June, 
1830, in the 68th year of his age, and the 1 1th of his 
reign, and was succeeded in the throne, by his brother, 
William, Duke of Clarence, under the title of William IV. 
His short reign was not distinguished for any important 
event; at his death, he was succeeded by her present maj- 
esty, Queen Victoria. 



SCOTLAND 



SECTION I. 

1. The early history of Scotland is greatly involved in 
fable and obscurity. Their pretension to a regular succes- 
sion of kings from the time of Alexander the Great, seems 
entitled to little credit. Fergus I. they consider as the 
founder of their monarchy, and he is said to have been the 
first who displayed on his banner, the royal emblem of 
Scotland; namely, a red lion with his tail folded on his 
back, the attitude which that noble animal assumes when 
roused to anger. When the Romans took their final leave 
of England, in 410, the people of Scotland were divided 
into a number of hostile tribes, the principal of which were 
the Scots and Picts ; the latter was subdued by Kenneth 
II., who became king of all Scotland, A. D. 843. 

2. Little of importance or interest, occurs in the history 
of the country from the time of Kenneth, until the reign of 
Alexander III. Upon the death of Alexander, a number 
of competitors for the crown appeared, among whom Rob- 
ert Bruce and John Bafiol, seemed to have the nearest 
claim. They were both descended from David, Earl of 
Huntington, third son of David I. To avoid, however, 
the miseries of civil war, they resolved to refer the case to 
Edward I. of England, as umpire, and submit to his de- 
cision. Edward finding Bafiol the more obsequious, de- 
cided in his favor. Baliol consented to receive the crown 
as a vassal of England. 

3. But the fierce and warlike barons could not brook the 
passive spirit of John, and the encroachment of their lib- 
erty by the English monarch. A war ensued between the 
two kingdoms ; Edward marched into Scotland at the head 
of a powerful army, and after defeating the Scots in a bat- 



SCOTLAND. 25ft 

tie near Dunbar, reduced the whole country to subjection. 
The weak and timid spirit of Baliol, induced him to sur- 
render the crown into the hands of the British king. 

4. At this critical juncture, when the liberties of Scot- 
land lay prostrate at the feet of the conqueror, the dying 
energies of the nation were roused by the valor and patriot- 
ism of Sir William Wallace. The deeds of this hero, are 
in many instances, colored with fiction ; yet, divested of all 
their embellishments, they remain sufficiently great to ren- 
der him worthy of the name of patriot. He, almost single- 
handed, ventured to take up arms in defense of the king- 
dom, and by his boldness, revived the spirit of his country- 
men. He persuaded Robert Bruce to assert the right and 
vindicate the honor of his country. The Scots Hocked to 
the standard of Bruce, who, after a variety of victories, 
succeeded in restoring the independence of his country, and 
was elevated to the throne, A. D. 1306. 

5. Edward again made preparations for invading Scot- 
land, and had advanced as far as Carlisle, when he sudden- 
ly died. In the reign of his successor, was fought near 
Stirling, the famous battle of Bannockburn. Edward 
commanded the English forces in person, and Robert Bruce 
those of Scotland ; the engagement terminated in the signal 
defeat of the British army, and firmly established the vic- 
torious Bruce on the throne of his ancestors. Bruce died 
in 1329, and was succeeded by his son, David II at the 
age of four years. During his minority, the Earl of Mur- 
ray was appointed regent of the kingdom, and fulfilled the 
duties of his station with justice and moderation. 

6. About the year 1331, Edward Baliol, the son of 
John Baliol, taking advantage of the king's minority, be- 
gan to bring forward pretensions to the crown. Aided by 
many of the English barons, he landed in Scotland and de- 
feated the Earl of Mar, who had succeeded Murray in the 
office of regent. Baliol was immediately crowned king, and 
acknowledged the English monarch as his superior. Thus 
was Scotland a second time, reduced to a state of depen- 
dence and subjection to England. 

7. The spirit of freedom which had so long character- 
ized the Scots, slumbered for a season, but was not sub- 
dued. The faithful adherents of the deposed king, watched 
the earliest opportunity to strike for the liberty of their 
country, and to shake ofl* the English yoke. At length the 
Scottish valor prevailed: Baliol was expelled from the 



256 SCOTLAND. 

country, and David II. was again restored to the throne, A. 
D. 1341. 

8. David was a weak but virtuous prince, and passed 
through many reverses of fortune. He was taken prisoner 
by the English in the battle of Durham, and remained in 
captivity for 11 years ; he was at length ransomed by his 
subjects, and died in 1370. He was succeeded by his 
nephew, Robert Stuart, the first of that family who sway- 
ed the scepter of Scotland. The race of the Stuarts, is the 
most unfortunate in the annals of history ; with few excep- 
tions, they all became the victims of some ill-fated or trag- 
ical end. 



SECTION II. 

The House of Stuarts ; from Robert II. to James VI.; 
A. D. 1370, to 1603. 

1. Robert II., a prince characterized for the mildness of 
his disposition, was quite unequal to the task of managing 
his fierce and ungovernable subjects. His reign was mark- 
ed by a series of contests, which took place between the 
English and Scottish borderers. The great families Doug- 
las and Percy, whose estates lay contiguous to each other, 
were at continual variance. On one occasion they met at 
Otterburn ; an obstinate battle ensued, in which the Eng- 
lish were routed, but the Earl of Douglas was slain. The 
celebrated ballad of Chevy Chace was written to commem- 
orate the single combat between Douglas and Percy. Rob- 
ert died in 1390, and was succeeded by his son, under the 
title of Robert III. 

2. The reign of this prince was rendered unhappy 
through the conduct of his turbulent nobles. The Duke 
of Albany, the brother of the king, a man of the greatest 
ambition and cruelty, having represented to Robert, some 
misconduct of his son, prevailed on the king to deliver him 
into his custody. Having obtained possession of the per- 
son of the young prince, he conducted him to the castle of 
Falkland, and cast him into a dungeon, where he died in 
a short time for want of food. 

3. Robert now old and infirm, was unable to revenge 
this outrage ; but having another son, called James, then 



SCOTLAND. 257 

eleven years of age, resolved to send him to France to avoid 
the power and cruelty of the Duke. On his way, the 
young prince unfortunately fell into the hands of the Eng- 
lish, by whom he was taken to London, and by order of 
Henry, committed to the Tower. At the news of this dis- 
aster, Robert was so overpowered with grief, that he died 
shortly after with a broken heart, A. D. 1405. 

4. James was detained 18 years in captivity in England, 
during which time, he adorned his mind with every valua- 
ble accomplishment, and had leisure to learn the superior 
wisdom of the English laws and government. In 1424, 
he married Lady Joan Beaufort, the daughter of the Earl 
of Somerset. The young king of England presented him 
with a suit of gold cloth for the ceremony, after which he 
departed for Scotland, and was crowned the same year at 
Scone, under the title of James I. 

5. James on his arrival, found the affairs of Scotland very- 
different from those of England. During the regency of 
Albany, the kingdom was filled with great disorders, and 
the royal authority had fallen into utter contempt; in every 
section of the country, some barbarous chieftain ruled at 
pleasure, without regard to the authority of the king or the 
interests of the people. The first object of James, was to 
curb the exorbitant power of the nobility. A statute was 
passed in parliament, by which the leagues and combina- 
tions, which rendered them so powerful, were declared ille- 
gal. He caused a number of the most refractory to be ar- 
rested and brought to trial ; the king himself presided in 
person, dressed in his royal robes, with the scepter and 
globe in his hand. They were found guilty and publicly 
executed. 

6. James, having thus reduced order in his kingdom, and 
being a prince of refined accomplishments and the most 
elegant scholar of his age, turned all his attention towards 
the improvement and civilization of his subjects. But the 
check that he had given to the power of the nobility, had 
irritated the whole body, and they only waited a favorable 
opportunity for conspiring against him. While holding a 
feast at Perth, he had taken up his abode at the Convent of 
Blachfriers, there being no palace or castle convenient, and 
had quartered his guards among the citizens. A conspiracy 
was entered into, at the head of which appeared the earl of 
Athol and Sir Robert Graham, and this was deemed a 
favorable moment for carrying it into execution. 

11* 



258 SCOTLAND. 

7. The king had passed the 20th of February, 1437, in 
various amusements with his nobles and the ladies of his 
court, and was cheerfully conversing with his queen and 
her attendants, when suddenly a noise was heard, and the 
flaming of torches was seen in the convent gardens. At 
the first alarm, the king, judging that his life was in danger, 
ordered the doors to be closed, while he endeavored to effect 
his escape. Lady Catharine Douglas hastened to bolt the 
outer door of the hall, but not rinding the bar, she resolute- 
ly pushed her arm through the staples, which was broken 
by the conspirators in forcing the door. Dunbar, a young 
nobleman, who attempted to guard the anti-chamber, was 
struck dead ; and the queen herself received several wounds 
from the assassins. James, who was remarkably active 
and strong, defended himself for some time with great reso- 
lution ; but at length, overpowered by numbers, he fell un- 
der the repeated blows of the conspirators. 

8. The traitors immediately retreated to the Highlands, 
but by the unremitting exertions of his queen, they were all 
taken in the short space of a month, brought to trial and 
executed. The earl of At hoi, to whom it had been pre- 
dicted that he should die a king, was crowned with a red- 
hot diadem, as king of traitors; and after that horrible cere- 
mony he was beheaded. 

James I. was murdered in the 44th year of his age, and 
in the 13th of his reign. He was one of the wisest and 
most accomplished sovereigns that ever swayed the Scottish 
scepter. 

9. James II. succeeded his father to the throne at the 
early age of six years, while the affairs of state were chiefly 
under the direction of Alexander Livington and Sir William 
Crichton. 

At this period the house of Douglas had arrived at the 
height of its power. The Douglasses were remarkable for 
their courage and military talents, also for the pomp of their 
retinue and the number of their armed followers. In 1438, 
the earl of Douglas died, leaving two sons, the eldest a 
youth of sixteen. Livington and Crichton thought this a 
favorable opportunity for crushing forever the powerful 
house of Douglas. With this intention, they invited the 
young earl and his brother to court, as companions for the 
young king. Without suspecting the base design in con- 
templation, they accepted the invitation and set out with 
their attendants to Edinburg castle. They were received 
with every mark of respect, especially by James, who had 



SCOTLAND. 250 

no suspicion of the treacherous intentions of his guardians. 
A splendid intertainment was given them, in the midst of 
which a party of armed men rushed into the apartment, and 
seizing- upon the unsuspecting companions of James, drag- 
ged them into the court of the castle, where undergoing a 
mock trial for the insolence of their ancestors, they were 
condemned and beheaded. 

10. James II. is said to have been a handsome man, and 
of a quick, impetuous temper. His reign was distinguished 
by his strenuous efforts to humble the power of his haughty 
nobles. In 1460, he laid siege to the castle of Rnxhurg, 
for the purpose of recovering it from the hands of the Eng- 
lish. During the siege, James ordered the artillery to tire 
upon the castle, when one of the guns burst and killed 
him upon the spot, in the 29th year of his age. 

11. James III., who succeeded his father, possessed 
neither his abilities nor his talents. He secluded himself 
in the castle of Sterling, where he devoted himself to pur- 
suits ill becoming a sovereign, and raised the indignation of 
his barons, by his attachment to unworthy favorites. At 
length a powerful league was formed against him, which 
was joined by most of the southern lords. The king 
inarched towards the north, and having arrived at Sterling, 
was refused admittance by the governor. He then demand- 
ed his son, but was told that the young prince had been 
carried off by the rebel lords. 

12. Upon receiving this intelligence, the king immedi- 
ately advanced at the head of 30,000 men to meet the in- 
surgents. The army was arrayed in three divisions, the 
king himself commanding the rear. The battle commenced 
with fury on both sides, and for some time was sustained 
with equal success. At length the western borderers charg- 
ing with their long spears, bore down ail before them; 
James unable to stand the charge, turned and fled. As he 
retreated, he passed by a small hamlet near a mill; his 
horse taking fright at a woman, who came out for water, 
suddenly turned and precipitated the king to the ground, 
who being heavily armed and stuned by the fall, was unable 
to rise. The people soon collected and removed hirn into 
the mill. When he recovered, he called out for a priest. 
Being asked by the miller's wife, who he was, he replied: 
" I was your king this morning." The woman struck with 
surprise, hastened out and called loudly for a priest to at- 
tend the king. Upon this a stranger rode up and said : •* I 
am a priest, lead rae to the king." He was immediately 



260 SCOTLAND. 

introduced, and kneeling down, asked James if he thought 
he was dangerously injured. The king replied that he 
thought not, but in the mean time, desired that his confes- 
sion might be heard and that he might receive absolution. 
" This shall absolve you," replied the assassin, and draw- 
ing a poinard, plunged it into the breast of the unhappy- 
monarch. Such was the unfortunate end of James III., in 
the 36th year of his age. 

13. The throne was immediately occupied by his son 
and successor James IV., a great and accomplished prince, 
respected by his nobles and beloved by his subjects ; he 
loved magnificence and his court was renowned throughout 
Europe. He bitterly regretted his misfortune, in being 
compelled to appear in the field with the rebel lords ; and 
considering himself in a manner accessory to his father's 
death, he imposed upon himself a voluntary penance, which 
he continued to observe during the remainder of his life. 
He caused an iron girdle to be made, which he wore under 
his clothes; and, as if desirous that his penance might in- 
crease with his age, he every year added a new link to its 
weight. 

14. In 1502, he married the princess Margaret, daugh- 
ter of Henry VII. of England, an accomplished and vir- 
tuous woman. James, who excelled in all the martial exer- 
cises, and particularly delighted in tilts and tournaments, 
was eager for an occasion to display his prowess. During 
the reign of Henry VIII., the harmony which had subsist- 
ed between England and Scotland, began gradually to 
weaken, until at length it broke out into open rupture. 
James, contrary to the advice of the ablest of his ministers 
and against every entreaty of his queen, resolved upon the 
invasion of England, 

15. Having with much difficulty obtained the consent of 
parliament, he gave orders for the forces of the kingdom to 
meet him at Edinburg. After having completed his prepa- 
rations, the king, on the 22nd of August, entered England 
at the head of his army, attended by all the flower of the 
Scottish nobility, and pitched his camp on Flodden-Field. 
Here he was met by the English army, commanded by the 
earl of Surrey, who, confident of his superior strength, en- 
deavored to bring the Scottish king to an engagement. 

16. After some mutual suspense, the signal for the battle 
was given ; and the combatants on both sides, rushed to 
the contest with equal vigor. At the first onset, the forces 
of James threw the right wing of the English into disor- 



SCOTLAND. 261 

der ; but at that moment, Thomas Howard, at the head of 
his English division, bore down upon the Scots, while at 
the same time they were charged in the rear by Sir Ed- 
ward Stanley. Dreadful was the carnage that now ensued. 
The king fought on foot in the thickest of the contest. His 
nobles to whom he was dear, pressed and entreated him to 
escape. Night at length put an end to the conflict, during 
which the Scottish army silently withdrew, leaving the 
king and the flower of the nobility, numbered among the 
slain. 

17. James the V., who succeeded his father, was then 
an infant of only a year old; during his minority, the office 
of regency was conferred on the Duke of Albany. The 
Duke however, being a native of France, and quite unac- 
quainted with the manners and customs of Scotland, met 
with considerable opposition from t the turbulent nobles ; and 
after an unsuccessful struggle, he voluntarily resigned his 
office and retired to France. The king, now in his 13th 
year, assumed the reins of government, with eight persons, 
appointed as his chief counsellors, of whom the Earl of 
Angus was the most prominent. James bore the empty 
title of king, while the ambitious earl exercised the regal 
authority. His person was guarded by a body of a 100 
men ; all the higher offices of his household, were filled 
by members of the Douglas family, and relatives of Angus. 

This was a restraint which the young king reluctantly bore, 
and waited every opportunity to free himself from the 
power of the earl. Having at length effected his escape, 
he rode to Sterling, assembled around him his faithful ad- 
herents, and issued a proclamation declaring any of the 
Douglas family a traitor, who should dare to approach 
within twelve miles of his person. Angus and his adher- 
ents were accused of treason in parliament, their goods 
were forfeited, and they themselves driven into exile. 

18. The education of James had been much neglected ; 
his character was that of a great, but uncultivated mind; 
his passions were violent, yet he was distinguished for the 
affability of his deportment. Henry VIII. having declared 
war against Scotland, James prepared to defend his domin- 
ions. At the approach of the Scottish army, the English 
retired ; James proposed to pursue them ; but his barons 
resolutely refused to advance beyond their own borders. 
The king mortified and disappointed, disbanded his army 
and returned to his capital. Shortly after this, it was pro- 
posed to make an attack upon the English borders, and the 



262 SCOTLAND. 

troops for this purpose, were placed under the command 
of Oliver Sinclair. But the barons, indignant to see a per- 
son of inferior rank placed over them, basely surrendered 
their whole army, consisting of 10,000 men, to the enemy, 
without the slightest resistance. When the news of this 
event was brought to the king, he burst into, a transport of 
rage ; after which a distressing melancholy seized upon his 
mind. While in this state, he was informed of the birth 
of his daughter, afterwards the unfortunate Queen Mary. 
At this news he exclaimed; "It will end as it began; the 
crown came with a woman, it will go with one. How 
many miseries await this poor kingdom." These were 
his last words: he expired of a broken heart, in the 31st 
year of nis age, A.. D. 1542. 

19. Mary, Queen of Scots, so celebrated for her misfor- 
tunes, was but a few days old at the time of her father's 
death. Hamilton, earl of Arran, was appointed regent of 
the kingdom. Proposals were made by Henry the VIII. 
of England, of marriage between the infant queen of Scots 
and his son Edward, who was then also a child. The pro- 
posals were rejected by the Scots, in consequence of which 
hostilities were declared by the two countries, which were 
carried on for some time with various success. 

20. All prospects of a union between Mary and Edward 
being now at an end, it was resolved that she should form 
an alliance with the Dauphin of France, and should be sent 
to that country that she might be educated at the French 
court. Accordingly, in 1648, the young queen, then in 
her sixth year, embarked for France, while her mother, 
Mary of Guise, was made regent of Scotland, in place of 
Hamilton. On the death of Queen Mary of England, Eliz- 
abeth, her sister, succeeded to the throne of that country. 
But as the divorce between Henry and his first queen, had 
never been ratified by the pope, the Catholics, naturally 
regarding Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry and Anne Bo- 
leyn, as illegitimate, looked upon the queen of Scotland, 
the grand-daughter, Margaret, Henry's sister, as the right- 
ful heir to the English crown. Mary was induced to as- 
sert her claim ; money was coined, on which Mary and 
Francis assumed the title and arms of England and Scot- 
land. 

21. The Reformers in Scotland, assisted by Elizabeth, 
had taken up arms against the queen regent, and the Eng- 
lish army under the command of Lord Grey, having enter- 
ed Scotland, was joined by the members of the congrega- 



SCOTLAND. 263 

tion, from all parts of the kingdom. The queen regent, 
unable to withstand their united forces, retired to the castle 
of Edinburg, where she shortly after died. She was a 
princess possessed of great abilities and many amiable 
qualities. After her death, peace was restored and a treaty 
concluded, by which great concessions were made to the 
Reformers. During the contest, many of the most splendid 
churches and beautiful buildings were demolished by the 
Reformers ; the abbeys and monasteries, with the cells of 
the monks, were levelled to the ground. 

22. In 1560, Francis II. of France, died ; after which 
Mary resolved to return to her native kingdom. During 
her residence in France, her education had been particular- 
ly attended to ; she was mistress of several lan^ua^es : 
wrote both prose and verse, with elegance and ease ; ex- 
celled in music and all the accomplishments of her sex. 
She was condescending and gay in her manners, graceful 
in all her movements, and was repnted to have been the 
handsomest woman, at that period, in Europe. With the 
deepest regret she bid adieu to France, where she had pass- 
ed the happy scenes of childhood, and after a short passage 
landed at Leith in her own dominions, where she was re- 
ceived with every demonstration of joy by her subjects and 
nobles, who conducted her to Holyrood, the palace of her 
ancestors. 

23. As she rode through the streets of the capital, the 
inhabitants were dazzled by her splendor, and struck with 
admiration of her beauty. Her warlike nobles, as they 
crowded around her, were softened into the deepest rever- 
ence. Happy for Mary, if she could have gained equally 
the affection of all her subjects. But there was one class, 
over which all her gentleness could not exert the slightest 
influence. She was a Catholic; the reformers, therefore, 
regarded her as an enemy to their religion, although she 
had early declared her determination, to molest no one for 
the exercise of religion. The reformed preachers spoke 
openly against her with the most intemperate violence; 
Knox even boasted that he had spoken so roughly to her, 
when she condescended to expostulate with him, as to bring 
tears from her eyes. On the Sunday after her arrival, she 
had mass celebrated in the chapel at Holyrood ; but such 
was the intolerant spirit of the populace, that the priest 
narrowly escaped being murdered at the altar. 

24. The most powerful princes of Europe, solicited the 
hand of the Scottish queen. But Mary rejected them all 



264 SCOTLAND. 

and turned her affections towards a young nobleman of 
high birth, connected with the royal family both of Eng- 
land and Scotland. This was Henry Stuart, lord Darnley, 
the eldest son of the earl of Lennox, a man whose only 
recommendation seems to have been his personal appear- 
ance and external accomplishments. They were married 
on the 29th of July, 1565. 

25. Shortly after her marriage, an insurrection was ex- 
cited against her, at the head of which appeared the earl of 
Murray, Mary's natural brother. The queen appealed to 
the loyalty of her subjects, and the alacrity with which they 
responded to the call, proved her popularity. She rode at 
their head to inspire them with courage and lead them 
against the insurgents ; the insurrection was soon quelled 
and order again restored. 

26. Mary soon found that her union with Darnley, was 
likely to produce but little comfort or pleasure. He was a 
man of no stability of character ; naturally haughty and jeal- 
ous ; rendered giddy by the height to which he was raised 
by his marriage with the queen of Scotland, he demanded 
the crown matrimonial, that is an equal right in the crown 
with his consort. This concession, Mary refused without 
the consent of her parliament. He grew impatient and set 
no bounds to his resentment. In conjunction with several 
of the nobles of his court, he determined on the death of 
Rizzio, the queen's Italian secretary. This atrocious deed 
was perpetrated at Holyrood palace, in the very presence 
of the queen and several ladies of her court. 

27. Darnley, a few months after this event, being seized 
with a violent illness, was advised as soon as the state of 
his health would permit, to remove to a house near Edin- 
burg, called the Kirk of Field, for the benefit of the air. 
Mary frequently visited him here, with every mark of 
affection. On the 9th of February, 1567, the house in 
which the king resided was blown up with gunpowder; his 
body, with several of his attendants, was thrown into ah 
adjacent garden. 

28. The suspicion of the murder fell upon the earl of 
Bothwell, and the queen herself was accused of being an 
accomplice in the death of her husband. In a few days 
the earl of Lennox came forward and openly accused Both- 
well. Bothwell and several others were impeached as the 
murderers, and a day was appointed for their trial. At the 
appointed time, Bothwell appeared in Edinburg to stand his 
trial, accompanied by a large body of soldiery and attended 



SCOTLAND. 265 

by 4,000 gentlemen. A motion made by Lennox to sus- 
pend the trial for forty days, was rejected ; and no prose- 
cutor appearing, the jury, with the consent of the nobles 
and gentlemen, returned a verdict in favor of the accused. 
Bothwell, disregarding the murmurs of the people against 
this mockery of justice, invited the nobles to a splendid 
entertainment, and prevailed on them to sign a bond, in 
which they not only declared him innocent of the king's 
death, but recommended him to Mary, as the most suitable 
person for her future husband. 

29. Shortly after this, as Mary was returning from Ster- 
ling, where she had been on a visit to her son, she was met 
by Bothwell, at the. head of a thousand horse, and led cap- 
tive to the castle of Dunbar, from which she was only re- 
leased after she consented to become his wife. Mary re- 
quested time, that she might consult the king of France and 
her relations of the house of Guise. But the ambition of 
Bothwell, was too impatient to run the hazard of delay. 
The only remaining obstacle, his marriage with Janet Gor- 
don, the sister to the earl of Huntly, was in a few days re- 
moved by a divorce, which he obtained on the grounds of 
consanguinity. In the short space of one month after his 
trial. Bothwell led the queen to the court sessions, where 
she forgave him the outrages committed against her person, 
and created him duke of Orkney. On the following day 
they were married in the hall of Holyrood house. 

30. To explain this extraordinary transaction, would too 
far exceed the limits of these short outlines ; suffice it to 
say, that many of the ablest historians, have deduced the 
clearest evidence to prove, that Mary was innocent of all 
participation in the death of her husband, and that her mar- 
riage with Bothwell was effected by force.* 

31. The nobles, roused by the insult cast upon them- 
selves and their sovereign, flew to arms. A battle was 
fought at Carberry Hill, in which the forces of the queen 
were routed ; Bothwell fled from the field, and Mary sur- 
rendered herself into the hands of the lords, and was con- 
ducted by them to Edinburg. As the queen rode through 
the streets of the capital, she was accosted in the most in- 
sulting language by the populace, and upbraided as the mur- 
deress of her husband. On the following morning, she 
was escorted by a strong force, and conveyed to the castle 

*See her life by H. Bell, Esq., vol. II., page 221. Dr. Lingard's 
History of England, vol. VII., page 235. Anderson, page S9 — 102, 
Melville, page 80. 



286 SCOTLAND. 

of Lochleven, situated on a small island in the middle of a 
lake. 

32. Here she was compelled to resign her crown in favor 
of her infant son, and the earl of Murray, was immediately 
appointed regent. Mary, after languishing in captivity for 
some months, effected her escape, and assembling her faith- 
ful adherents around her, made an unsuccessful effort to re- 
gain her crown. She was met by the regent at Langside, 
and after an obstinate engagement, the queen's forces were 
completely routed. Mary having witnessed the defeat of 
her arms, contrary to all the entreaties of her friends, took 
the fatal resolution of throwing herself upon the mercy of 
Elizabeth, the English queen, from whom she received the 
warmest expressions of friendship and offers of protection. 
Accordingly, on the 16th of May, she crossed the Sol way 
in an open fishing boat, with a few attendants, and landed 
on the English shore. 

33. But Elizabeth, instead of affording the promised 
protection, sent the unhappy queen to Tutbury castle, 
where she was placed in the custody of the earl of Shrews- 
bury. Various circumstances contributed to render Eliza- 
beth jealous of her rival, the chief of which was her pre- 
tension to the English crown. For eighteen years the 
queen of Scots, languished in captivity, in the dominions 
of her cousin. At length, the English government resolved 
to crown the measure of her sorrows by an ignominious 
death. After much effected delay and apparent regret, 
Elizabeth signed the warrant for Mary's execution. 

34. When the messengers sent to inform her of her fate 
arrived at Fortheringay castle, they found Mary with her 
female attendants, engaged in evening prayer. She received 
them with her usual serenity, and heard her sentence read 
with the greatest composure. After which, placing her hand 
upon her bible, she solemnly protested her innocence of 
the crimes laid to her charge, particularly that of conspiring 
against the English queen. The earl of Kent observed 
that as the book was a Romish bible, her oath therefore was 
of no avail. Mary replied that her oath on that account, 
was the more solemn, as she herself was a Catholic. Being 
informed that her execution would take place on the follow- 
ing morning, she began immediately to prepare for that try- 
ing scene, and asked that she might be allowed to see her 
confessor, who had not been permitted to visit her for some 
time previous ; this only request, however, was denied her 



SCOTLAND. 267 

she was refused the consolation of the last rights of her re- 
ligion. 

35. On the evening previous to her execution, she wrote 
several letters; one to the king of France, and another to 
Elizabeth, in a mild and dignified style, in which she ex- 
pressed her gratitude that the period of her sorrowful pil- 
grimage was drawing to a close, and requested that her re- 
mains might be conveyed to France, and placed beside the 
relics of her mother. Before retiring, she called together 
her servants, and taking a glass of wine, she drank to them 
all. They pledged her in turn upon their knees, and asked 
her pardon for any neglect in their duty. On her part, she 
condescended to ask their forgiveness for any offense to- 
wards them, and after distributing among them what re- 
mained of her money and jewels, she took her leave of 
them in the most affectionate manner. 

36. She retired to rest at her usual hour, although she 
slept but little, being engaged the greater part of the night 
in prayer. As it inclined towards morning, she arose and 
dressed herself in a rich robe of silk and velvet. When 
the sheriff entered her room and informed her that the fatal 
hour had arrived, she replied that she was ready, and fol- 
lowed him with a cheerful countenance. On passing 
through the hall, she met Sir Andrew Melville, the master 
of her household, who in tears, lamented the ill merited 
fate of his mistress. She told him not to weep, but rather 
to rejoice, that she was so soon to be released from all her 
afflictions. She then delivered to him her last farewell to 
all her friends, and to her son in particular. Up to this 
moment, Mary seemed to bear all the circumstances of the 
trying scene, with a fortitude that elicited the admiration 
even of her enemies. At the mention of her son, however, 
she was no longer able to restrain the emotion of her heart ; 
all the love, the affection and tenderness of a mother was 
recalled — she burst into tears. 

37. She advanced to the hall of execution, holding in 
her hand a crucifix of ivory, ascended the scaffold with a 
majestic air and took her seat upon a chair, while the Dean 
of Peterborough, in a discourse, exorted her to renounce 
the faith of her ancestors, and die in the Reformed religion. 
Mary replied that she had been born in the Catholic reli- 
gion, in that she had lived, and in that religion she was re- 
solved to die. She then offered up her prayers aloud, for 
the Catholic church, for her son, and for her cousin, Queen 
Elizabeth. Having taken her last farewell of her faithful 



268 SCOTLAND. 

attendants, without the least emotions of fear, she calmly 
resigned her head to the block, which was severed from her 
body by two strokes of the axe. Thus ended the eventful 
life of the illustrious Queen of Scots, an event which has 
stamped an indelible stain upon the memory of Elizabeth. 
38. James VI., who was only an infant when placed 
upon the throne, assumed the reins of government at the 
age of fourteen. His partiality to unworthy favorites ex- 
cited against him the indignation and jealousy of his nobles. 
In consequence of which, several conspiracies were formed 
against him, and on several occasions, the king narrowly 
escaped with his life. There was no event of importance 
occurred during his reign in Scotland. In 1603, Elizabeth 
of England died, having previously appointed James, her 
successor to the English throne. On the Sunday before 
his departure for England, he repaired to the church of St. 
Giles, and took a solemn farewell of his Scottish subjects. 
On the 7th of May he entered London, and was received 
with shouts of approbation by the people. From this pe- 
riod, the history of Scotland becomes united with that of 
England. During the reign of Queen Anne, the legislative 
union between England and Scotland was effected, by 
which the latter was deprived of her national parliament, 
and both included under the common title of Great Britain, 
A. D. 1707. 



IRELAND 



SECTION L 

1. The early history of this country is greatly involved 
in obscurity, and has afforded a subject of research for an- 
tiquarians, for nearly two centuries. The first inhabitants 
of Ireland, according to the best authorities, were originally 
descended from the Celts, who first peopled the western 
part of Europe. This appears probable from the striking 
similarity between their modes of worship, their objects of 
adoration, and the language of that ancient people, the 
purest dialect of which, still exists in Ireland. 

2. By consulting the ancient authors, it will appear rea- 
sonable, that, while England was peopled from the coasts 
of Gaul, Ireland received her population directly from the 
shores of Celtic Spain. It is at least certain, that between 
these two countries, relations of affinity had been at an ear- 
ly period established, and the western coasts of Spain were 
the immediate regions from which the communication was 
maintained. That the country was inhabited at a very re- 
mote period of antiquity, is admitted by all impartial histo- 
rians ; but to pursue the early history of Ireland, to that 
extent necessary to give a clear view of this early period, 
would too far exceed the limits of these outlines; therefore, 
a few particulars must suffice. 

3. The religion of the early inhabitants was similar to 
that of nearly all the Eastern nations. The chief object of 
adoration was the sun, under the name of Baal or Bel. 
They also adored the moon, under the title of Be. The 
adoration of fire, once common to all the pagan nations, 
constituted also, a part of the Irish worship. Annually, at 
the time of the vernal equinox, the great festival of La 
Baai'tirmei or the Dav of Baal fire, was celebrated, and in 



270 IRELAND. 

every district of Ireland, it was strictly ordered, that all the 
fires should be extinguished, and no onp was permitted to 
light them, under pain of death, until after the pile of the 
sacrifice in the palace of Tara, was kindled. With the 
worship of fire, that of water was usually associated ; hence 
we find that certain fountains and wells were held sacred 
among the Irish. The priests, who were held in the high- 
est veneration on account of their learning, were called 
Magi or Druids. 

4. Ireland, at an early period, was divided into a number 
of small principalities, each governed by its own king, and 
the whole subordinate to a superior monarch, who had ra- 
ther nominally, the control over their proceedings. In 
addition to the chief king of each province, every subordi- 
nate prince, or head of a large district, also assumed 
the title of king, and exercised within his own dominions, 
all the powers of sovereignty. To the right of primogen- 
iture, so generally acknowledged in those ages, no regard 
was paid by the Irish. Within the circle of the relations 
of reigning princes, all alike were eligible to succeed him. 
The monarch himself was not only created by election, but 
even previous to his death, a successor was chosen by the 
same process. From this state of things, so badly designed 
for the preservation of order, we may easily infer, that dis- 
cord frequently prevailed. The crown itself, was often re- 
garded as a prize to the strongest ; hence faction pervaded 
all ranks of the people, from the cottage of the peasant to 
the palace of the supreme monarch. 

5. Two centuries previous to the Christian era, the Irish 
annalists inform us, that king Kimboah, the monarch who 
then occupied the chief throne, was the 75th king of Ire- 
land. Among the long list of kings who have passed like 
a shadow, through this dim period of Irish history, the 
name of Oil am Fodhla is distinguished, as an eminent leg- 
islator. Many of his most useful institutions are said to 
have enjoyed but a short existence ; but the act which ren- 
ders his reign an important era in legislation, was the es- 
tablishment of the Triennial Convention at Tara, the an- 
cient residence of the monarchs of Ireland. 

In these periodical assemblies, we observe a near ap- 
proach to a representative form of government. The lead- 
ing persons of the three orders, of which the political com- 
munity consisted, namely the king, the druids, and the 
plebeians, were convened for the purpose of passing such 
laws and regulations, as the public good seemed to require* 



IRELAND. 271 

6. Among the important offices, transmitted hereditary 
in Ireland, were those of heralds, hards and musicians. 
To the profession of these arts, Ol/'am Fodhla assigned 
lands for their use. He also instituted at Tara, a school of 
general instruction, which afterwards became celebrated nn- 
Jer the name of the Mur-ollam ham, or the college of the 
earned. At the commencement of the Christian era, the 
[rish throne was occupied by Conary the Great, of whose 
*eign we have but kw particulars. 

7. One of the most illustrious of the Irish monarchs, 
was Cormac Ulfadah, who flourished about the middle of 
lie third century. To his munificence and love of learn- 
ng, the country was indebted, it is said, for the foundation 
)f three academies at Tara : in the first of which, the sci- 
?nce of war was taught ; in the second, historical literature ; 
while the third was devoted to the cultivation of jurispru- 
dence. Under his auspices, a general revision of the an- 
lals of the kingdom took place ; the national records, pre- 
served in the Psalter of Tara since the days of the illustri- 
ms 01 lam, were corrected and improved. According to 
in ancient custom of the country, no one could retain pos- 
session of the throne, who was affected with any personal 
)lemish ; and as Cormac, in defending his palace against 
i rebellious attack, had incurred the loss of an eye, he was 
hereby disqualified for retaining the sovereignty. After 
lis abdication of the regal power, Cormac retired to an 
lumble cottage, where he devoted the remainder of his 
ilays to literary pursuits ; while he was succeeded in the 
;hrone by his son. 

9. No event of importance occurs in the history of Ire- 
and from this period, until Christianity was introduced 
nto the island by the illustrious Apostle, St. Patrick. 
The holy missionary, according to the most authentic ac- 
counts, was born in Gaul, of respectable parentage, about 
the year 387. In his youth he was taken captive to Ire- 
and, and sold to a man by the name of Milcho, by whom 
he was employed in attending flocks. After six years of 
servitude, he again escaped to his native country ; and hav- 
ing spent some time with his parents, he repaired to the 
celebrated monastery or college of St. Martin, near Tours, 
where he remained for several years, and is believed to have 
been initiated into the ecclesiastical state, previous to his 
leaving that institution. 

9. The attention of the Roman Pontiff had been for 
some time directed towards establishing Christianity in [re- 



272 IRELAND. 

land ; at length Pope Celestine resolved to send a bishop 
to that country, and Palladius was the person appointed 
for that mission. But on the death of Palladius, which 
happened shortly after his appointment, St. Patrick was 
selected to succeed him in the mission. Having been con- 
secrated bishop at Ebona, a town in the North of Gaul, 
the saint proceeded on his passage to the scene of his la- 
bors, and after some short delay in Britain, he arrived in 
Ireland, as the Irish annals inform us, in the first year of 
the pontificate of Sextus III., A. D. 432. 

10. The most abundant fruit followed his labors ; pro- 
ceeding from province to province, he preached the truths 
of the gospel, and by his eloquence converted all who 
heard him to Christianity. He was permitted to explain 
the object of his mission before Lorgerius, the chief king 
of the country, at a meeting of the great council of the na- 
tion, then assembled atTara, and numbered among his con- 
verts several members of the royal family. It does not ap- 
pear evident, that the monarch himself embraced Christi- 
anity, although he allowed the holy man to pursue his mission 
unmolested. In a few years, St. Patrick built a number 
of churches, and founded monasteries, designed for the ed- 
ucation of persons for tiie priesthood. He is said to have 
banished all the vipers and noxious animals from the island ; 
whether this be the fact or not, it is certain that they will 
not live in that country at the present time. The saint died 
at Sabhul, on the 17th of March, A. D. 465, in the 78th 
year of his age : the day of his death is still held in grate- 
ful remembrance by the natives of Ireland, no matter in 
what part of the earth fortune may have cast them. 

11. During the seventh and the greater part of the eighth 
century, literature flourished in Ireland ; the fame of her 
institutions spread to other climes, and numbers from all 
parts of Europe, flocked to her shores to study in her 
schools, while at the same time, Irish scholars were invited 
to impart instruction in foreign countries. Hence we find 
that Charlemagne, patronized several distinguished Irish 
scholars; and during the reign of Charles the Bald, the 
learned, though subtle, John Scotus Eringena, received, 
not only the royal patronage, but was made the intimate 
companion of that monarch. 

12. Towards the close of the eighth century, Ireland 
was invaded by the Danes, who continued to hold posses- 
sion of the chief maritime towns of the country for more 
than two hundred years. During this period, an almost 



IRELAND. 273 

uninterrupted series of warfare was carried on, between 
the natives and the invaders ; but to follow the history of 
the country through that period would too far exceed our 
present limits ; it will be sufficient to notice the great vic- 
tory gained by the Irish heroes on the plains of Clontarf, 
where the death-blow was given to the Danish power. As 
this is one of the most memorable battles recorded in the 
Irish annals, it deserves a particular notice. 

13. About the year 1014, the Danes, whose chief power 
was concentrated at Dublin, began to make preparations for 
reducing the entire country. For this purpose, they not 
only collected all their forces from the different parts of 
Ireland, Scotland, Hebrides, and Orkneys, but moreover, 
brought fresh reinforcements from Denmark and Norman- 
dy. It happened at this time, that the chief throne of Ire- 
land was occupied by the famous Brian Boru. This illus- 
trious monarch, aware of the intention of the Danes, lost 
no time in opposing their designs ; and placing himself at 
the head of his own forces of Munster, and joined by those 
of Meath under Malachy, and by the troops of Cormaugh, 
commanded by Teige, the king of that province, he marched 
directly to the vicinity of Dublin, and took up his position 
on the plain of Clontarf. The Danes, confiding in the su- 
periority of their numbers, were anxious for the engage- 
ment. At the dawn of day, on the morning of the 23rd of 
April, the battle was commenced, and raged with unabating 
fury, until the close of the evening, when victory declared 
in favor of the Irish, and the Danes were driven with im- 
mense slaughter from the field. 

14. Brian, who is said to have triumphed in fifty battles 
over the enemies of his country, was now destined to fall 
in the moment of another victory, by the hand of an assas- 
sin. In the midst of the rout and carnage that followed 
the retreat, Bruadair, one of the Danish chiefs, took refuge 
in a small wood, in the vicinity of Brian's tent, and per- 
ceiving that the monarch was almost entirely unattended, 
and at that moment engaged in prayer, with his hands up- 
raised to heaven, rushed into the tent and plunged a dagger 
into the royal veteran's heart. The power of the Danes 
never recovered from the overthrow it received in the battle 
of Clontarf; the blow struck on that memorable occasion 
by Brian, was followed up by his able successor, Malachy; 
hence we find, that their numbers gradually diminished, 
until at length, their feeble remains are mingled with the 

12 



274 IRELAND. 

general mass of the population, and disappear as a distinct 
people. 

15. Irish literature, which had been so renowned through- 
out the west, naturally decreased from its former state of 
advancement, during the Danish invasion. The schools 
and monasteries, though frequently ravaged and burnt by 
the Danes, again arose from their ashes, and again resound- 
ed with the voice of instruction and prayer as the invader 
retired. Hence during the 11th century, her literary in- 
stitutions became famous abroad, and her shores were visit- 
ed by foreign students.* 



SECTION II. 



From the Invasion of Ireland by Henry II., of England, 
A. D. 1171, to the Insurrection of 1798. 

1. After the overthrow of the Danes in the great battle 
of Clontarf nothing of importance occurs in the history of 
Ireland, until we come to the memorable struggle, which 
terminated in the utter extinction of her national independ- 
ence, and the subjection of the country to the dominion of 
the British crown. As early as the year 1155, Henry II. , 
of England, had conceived the design of invading Ireland ; 
but having neither a legal right to the possession of the 
country, nor an)^ ground of a quarrel to justify an invasion 
of it, he saw that by no other means could he plausibly at- 
tain his object, than by concealing the real motive of his 
enterprise, under a pretended zeal for the interest of religion 
and morality. 

2. With this view, he applied to pope Adrian, an Eng- 
lishman by birth, who had been lately raised to the pon- 
tifical throne, for permission to invade and subdue the Irish, 
for the purpose of effecting a reformation among them. 
The pontiff, assuming an extent of temporal power, such as 
no pope before had thought of arrogating to himself, acced- 
ed to the will of the English monarch, on condition that a 
penny for every house in Ireland, should be annually paid 
to the court of Rome. Either from the internal commotion 
of his kingdom, or from some other cause, Henry was res- 

*See Moore's History of Ireland, page 214 — 235. 



IRELAND. 275 

trained from carrying into effect his projected invasion of 
Ireland, for many years after he obtained the pretended 
grant of the country from the pope. 

3. An opportunity at length presented itself favorable to 
his ambitious views. Dermot Mac Murchad, king of Lein- 
ster, having been expelled from his country on account of 
his crimes and cruelty, fled to England for aid. On his 
arrival, however, finding that the king was absent in Nor- 
mandy, he immediately sailed for that country, and threw 
himself at the feet of Henry, offering, if restored to his 
kingdom, to hold it as a vassal of the English crown. The 
English monarch received, without hesitation, the proffered 
fealty of his new liegeman, and as the only way in which 
he could at present forward his objects, he gave him letters 
patent, for the purpose of raising forces in his dominions. 

4. Having been thus successful in the object of his mis- 
sion, Dermot hastened back to England, and succeeded in 
interesting in his cause several persons of distinguished 
rank; among whom, Richard de Clare, earl of Pembroke, 
surnamed Strongbow, was the most prominent ; also two 
brothers of high rank, Maurice Fitz-Gerald, and Robert 
Fitz-Stephen, who, like the earl of Pembroke himself, 
were persons of broken fortunes and ready to embark in 
any enterprise, however desperate, which held out the pros- 
pect of a speedy relief. To the earl of Pembroke, Der- 
mot promised his daughter Eva in marriage, and to secure 
to him the succession to the throne of Leinster, on condi- 
tion that he would raise an efficient body of men and trans- 
port them into Ireland, during the following spring. To 
the two brothers, Maurice and Robert, he engaged to grant 
the town of Wexford and the adjoining land; while they 
on their part, engaged to transport into Leinster, a body of 
English and Welsh forces, to aid him in recovering the 
throne of his kingdom. 

5. Being thus assured of foreign assistance, Dermot re- 
turned, probably to Leinster, where after some short time, 
we find him making the most unqualified submission to 
Roderic, then the chief and the last of the Irish monarchs, 
renouncing the claim to"" the government of Leinster, re- 
questing to be allowed only ten cantreds of that province. 
This specious submission was only intended to disguise 
his treacherous designs, as his subsequent conduct proved, 
until the arrival of his expected succors. In the mean time, 
the English adventurers hastened to fulfill their engage- 
ments, and in the month of May, during the spring of 



276 IRELAND. 

1169, the first landing of the Anglo-Normans on the coasts 
of Ireland, under the command of Robert Fitz-Stephen, 
took, place. 

6. Dermot, full of joy at the welcome intelligence, in- 
stantly collected all the forces in his power, and hastened 
to join the invaders. The first attack was made on the 
city of Wexford, which finally yielded to their arms. An in- 
stance of cruelty committed by the invaders about this time, 
deserves particular notice. Seventy of the principal in- 
habitants of Waterford, were made prisoners during their 
attack upon that city ; every offer was made by their fellow- 
citizens for their ransom, even the surrender of the city 
itself was proffered, as the purchase of their liberty,, It 
was determined, however, by the English chieftains, to de- 
cide the fate of the prisoners in a council of war, in which, 
the counsel of Henry of Mount Maurice, who thus early 
urged a policy, which has been only too faithfully pursued 
by the British government to the present time, " of strik- 
ing terror into the Irish," unfortunately prevailed. The 
prisoners were borne away to the adjacent racks, where 
they were cruelly put to death, by first breaking their limbs 
and casting them into the sea. 

7. Subsequent to this event, the earl of Pembroke arrived 
in Ireland with reinforcements, and in a short time Dublin, 
Waterford and other important places, fell into the hands 
of the English. In the mean time, the English monarch 
having made all the necessary preparations, embarked for 
Ireland, and after a short voyage, landed at Crock, near 
Waterford, on the 18th of October, A. D. 1171. 

The design of the king, if we may judge from some of 
his acts immediately after his arrival, was clearly to impress 
upon the minds of the people, that he came rather to pro- 
tect them from the oppression of others, than to acquire 
any advantage or possession for himself. This refined 
policy, combined with a total want of a united or national 
spirit among the people, will account in some measure, for 
the little resistance the royal invader met, during the pro- 
gress which he made through the country. 

8. After receiving the homage of the king of Desmond, 
who made a voluntary offer of submission and tribute, 
Henry advanced at the head of his army to Lismore, and 
from thence to Cashel, where he received the submission 
of Donald 0' "Brian, king Thomond. The example of 
these princes, was followed by many of the inferior poten- 
tates, who after meeting with a courteous reception, were 



IRELAND. 277 

dismissed to their territories, laden with presents from 
the English monarch. From Cashel, Henry returned 
through Tipper ary to Waterford, and after making but a 
short stay, he marched to Dublin, a city, which from the 
extent of its commerce, had risen at that time to such im- 
portance, as to become the rival of London. 

9. Here, we are told, he was joyfully received by the 
inhabitants ; while all the neighboring chieftains hastened 
to proffer their allegiance ; and among the rest, who now 
joined in the train of the English sovereign, was O'Ruarc, 
of Breffny, and finally JRoderic O'Connor, who was the 
last chief monarch of Ireland. In 1175, a treaty was con- 
cluded between Henry and Roderic, in which it was sol- 
emnly determined that the kings of England should be, in 
all future time, the lords paramount of Ireland ; that the fee 
of the soil should be invested in ihem, and that all succeed- 
ing monarchs of Ireland, should hold their dominions, but 
as tenants or vassals of the English crown. 

10. In 1185, Henry transferred the government of Ire- 
land to his son John, then a youth in the 12th year of his 
age. The insolent behavior of the young prince and his 
courtiers, roused the indignation of the Irish chieftains, who 
now began to perceive, when too late, that they had intrust- 
ed their liberties to treacherous keepers, whose object was 
to render them not only tributaries, but slaves. Forgetting 
all local and personal differences, they agreed to unite 
against the enemies of their country; and so successful 
were they in their efforts, that according to the English 
chronicles themselves, John lost in his different contests 
with the Irish, almost the whole of his army. Henry be- 
ing informed of the danger that threatened the very exist- 
ance of his power in Ireland, instantly despatched orders 
recalling the prince, and placed the whole power of the 
government, civil and military, in the hands of Be Courcy. 

Such is the brief outline of the establishment of the 
English power over the Irish nation ; a power that has 
placed the two nations in the attitude in which we see them 
at present, the one subjected without being conquered ; the 
other a ruler, without being a master. 

11. In 1315, Ireland was invaded by Edward Bruce, 
brother to the king of Scotland. He landed on the island 
with 3,000 adventurers, and was joined by several of the 
Irish lords of Ulster. After committing various devasta- 
tions, a decisive battle was fought, in which Bruce was 
killed, and the Scots compelled to retire. 



278 IRELAND. 

In the reign of Henry VII. of England, the power of 
the governor of Ireland was much diminished by decree- 
ing, that no act passed, or parliament held without the con- 
sent of the king of England, should be deemed valid. By 
this measure, the Irish legislature became dependent on that 
of England. 

James I,, who valued himself greatly upon promoting 
the arts of peace, done something towards meliorating the 
condition of his Irish subjects. He abolished the customs 
of the country, and substituted English laws in their place, 
while no authority but that of the king and the laws, were 
permitted throughout the kingdom. During the civil war 
in England, in the reign of Charles I., Ireland was also 
disturbed by insurrection. 

12. The loyalty of the Irish to the house of the Stuarts, 
manifested itself after the execution of the unfortunate 
Charles I., in declaring in favor of his son, afterwards 
Charles II. To quell the insurrection that followed, Crom- 
well was appointed to the command of the parliament 
forces, and dispatched to that country. After some delay 
at Dublin, where he landed, he determined to lay siege to 
Drogheda. The town was garrisoned by Sir A. Aston, 
with two thousand soldiers and a regiment of horse, besides 
several volunteers. On coming before the town, Crom- 
well sent a formal summons to the governor, which was 
peremptorily rejected, and a blockade was accordingly com- 
menced. 

13. The besiegers were delayed some time by the want 
of artillery ; but when the cannon arrived from Dublin, 
they opened a tremendous fire from their batteries, which 
the walls of Drogheda were unable to resist. A practica- 
ble breach was soon made, but the attempt at storming was 
twice repulsed, with great slaughter. Cromwell rallied his 
men to a third attack, and placed himself at their head. 
The resistance was vigorous ; but the Irish Colonel Wall, 
being killed at the head of his regiment, his soldiers sur- 
rendered the town under a solemn promise of quarter. 
This engagement, made by his officers, Cromwell, on en- 
tering the city, refused to ratify, and ordered the garrison 
to be put to the sword. The inhuman massacre was con- 
tinued during the two following days. Thirty of the brave 
defenders of Drogheda, alone survived, and these were sold 
as slaves. 

14. Cromwell next took the city of Wexford, where all 
the horrors of Drogheda were renewed ; the conqueror 



IRELAND. 279 

strictly forbade his soldiers to give quarter. Strafford, the 
governor, with some few others, escaped by swimming 
their horses across the river. The excuse for these atro- 
cious barbarities, was the necessity, as it was said, of stri- 
king immediate terror into the Irish, in order to prevent 
them from future opposition. After these and similar acts 
of unexampled severity, the whole country submitted to 
the power of the parliament. 

15. At the conclusion of the war, the greater part of the 
nobility and gentry, with the flower of the army, had 
sought an asylum in foreign lands ; their estates were for- 
feited, and the English commonwealth prepared to put into 
execution a system of confiscation, more extensive and 
complete than that which had been attempted by Elizabeth 
or James I. An ordinance was made out for the settling 
of Ireland, which declares, in its first clause, that it- was 
the intention of the English parliament "to extirpate the 
Irish nation." 

16. In the year 1653, preparations were made to put 
this act into execution, and another ordinance was passed 
for the satisfaction of the adventurers and soldiers. By 
this decree, the forfeited lands in the counties of Limerick, 
Tipperary, and Waterford, in the province of Munster; 
the King and Queen's counties; east and west Meath, in 
the province of Leinster; Down, Antrim, and Armagh, in 
the province of Ulster, were all to be charged with the 
money advanced by adventurers, and to be divided among 
them by lot. Thus a material portion of Ireland was dis- 
tributed among the followers of Cromwell, and the sup- 
porters of the parliament. In this division, the Puritans 
declared that they were directed by the example set by the 
Israelites, in the division of Canaan, and believed that they 
were justified. The ancient possessors being thus dis- 
placed, a new and strange class of proprietors succeeded in 
their place, and have preserved their acquisitions under 
every succeeding change. 

17. That the act which gave them the lands of the king- 
dom was an unparalleled public robbery, and the most atro- 
cious instance of unprincipled spoliation recorded in his- 
tory, no one can deny. Few however, felt any scruples at 
that period ; the country they deemed theirs, by the right 
of conquest ; a right which they supposed to give them 
absolute authority over the lives and property of the van- 
quished. The sufferers were Catholics, and they had been 
taught to look upon them, as idolaters, whose punishment 



280 IRELAND. 

was most acceptable service in the sight of heaven. Many 
of the native inhabitants were kept as bondsmen and slaves 
to the new proprietors ; they were looked upon as an infe- 
rior species, a degraded cast, for whom they could feel no 
sympathy. The very name of Irish, was with them and 
their descendants, an expression of contempt, and associa- 
ted with ideas of intellectual and moral degradation. The 
peasants were forbidden to leave their parishes without per- 
mission, and strictly prohibited from assembling for reli- 
gious worship or any other purpose. The Catholic clergy 
were ordered to quit the country, under penalty of death ; 
and it was moreover declared a capital offense to celebrate 
mass, or to perform any ceremonies of the Catholic wor- 
ship. 

18. Nothing occurred in the history of Ireland of any 
particular importance, until after the dethronement of 
James II. The Irish still remained firm in their allegiance 
to the unfortunate monarch, and unfurled the royal stand- 
ard in his favor. On the 12th of March, 1688, James 
landed in Ireland, at Kinsale, with a small body of French 
forces. Proceeding immediately to Dublin, he entered the 
capital amidst the joyous acclamations of all classes of the 
inhabitants. As soon as time would permit, he convoked 
a parliament to meet at Dublin ; one of the first acts of this 
assembly, was a decree, granting full liberty of conscience 
to the professors of every religious creed. 

19. On the part of king William, nothing was more anx- 
iously desired than to bring his rival to a decisive engage- 
ment, for every day that protracted the war in Ireland, 
added to the dangers of his situation. He therefore, re- 
solved to conduct the campaign in person, and arrived in 
Ireland on the 14th of June. James, on hearing of Wil- 
liam's landing, hastened to join his army, which had retired 
from Dundalk to Drogheda, and took up his position on 
the southern bank of the river Boyyie. The French and 
Irish officers, labored to dissuade James from coming to an 
engagement on that occasion. They represented to him 
that his numbers were inferior to those of the enemy ; that 
the greater part of his forces were new levies ; that the 
promised succors from France, might speedily be expect- 
ed ; they showed how easily he could maintain a defensive 
warfare beyond the Shannon, until France should strength- 
en his force, and delay weaken that of his rival. 

20. Courage never had formed any very striking feature 
in the character of James, but on this occasion, he insisted 



IRELAND. 281 

on fighting with so much animation, that his officers and 
soldiers were persuaded, that he intended to take a desper- 
ate part in the engagement, but at the same time, with 
ominous precaution, he dispatched Sir Patrick Trant to 
Waterford, in order to secure a vessel for his escape, in 
case of misfortune. On the last day of June, William's 
army advanced towards the river, and the English king 
proceeded to take a survey of the enemy's lines from a 
hill, which commanded an extensive prospect. Anxious, 
however, to gain a nearer view of the enemy, be advanced 
with some of his officers towards the ford opposite the vil- 
lage of Old Bridge, and having spent some time in reconnoi- 
tering, sat down to refresh himself on some rising ground. 
While in this position, several field-pieces were discharged 
at the spot, and as the king arose to mount his horse, a shot 
from one of the guns, killed one of his attendants and two 
horses, and a second ball grazed his right shoulder, tearing 
the coat and inflicting a slight wound. 

21. On the memorable morning of ihe 1st of July, 1690, 
William's army advanced in three columns, to the banks of 
the Boyne. After some delay in crossing the river, the 
engagement became general. The conflict was sustained 
for some time on both sides, with determined bravery. 
William animated his soldiers by his presence, and fre- 
quently mingled in the thickest of the contest, while James 
remained a passive spectator on the hill of Donore, and he 
is said to have exclaimed, when he witnessed the destruc- 
tive charge of Hamilton's dragoons, " Spare, spare my 
English subjects !" 

22. Before the fate of the battle was decided, James de- 
serting his brave and faithful soldiers, fled with precipita- 
tion to Dublin, and there falsely ascribed Ins defeat to the 
cowardice of the Irish, who, throughout the whole action, 
had displayed the greatest courage, and only wanted a wor- 
thy leader, to have gained a triumphant victory. On their 
part, they justly ascribed the ill success of the day to the 
cowardice and incapacity of James; " Change kings," was 
their common cry, " and we will fight the battle over 
again." Making but a short stay at Dublin, James contin- 
ued his flight to Waterford, and embarked for France. In 
the battle of the Boyne, William lost several of his most 
distinguished and able officers. The Irish lost no person 
of distinction, except the brave and courageous Hamilton, 
who was taken prisoner. When brought into the presence 
of William, he was asked by the king, if he thought the 

12* 



282 IRELAND. 

Irish would fight again: to which the intrepid general re- 
plied : " Upon my honor, I believe they will." 

23. After the departure of James, the Irish leaders, thus 
left to themselves, for some time ably sustained the cause of 
their country. The operations of the Irish army were 
chiefly directed by the brave and patriotic Sarsfield. Dur- 
ing the following year, 1691, James obtained some few 
forces and military stores from Louis of France, who was 
still anxious to protract the war in Ireland. But the exiled 
monarch could not resist the opportunity of insulting his 
Irish subjects, even in this crisis of their fate. Although 
under a thousand obligations to the gallant Sarsfield, the 
favorite of the people, still be would not intrust him with 
the command of the army, but conferred it on St. Ruth, a 
French general of some reputation, whose subsequent con- 
duct by no means tended to soothe the irritated feelings of 
the Irish general and army. 

24. The first operation of the French general was the 
defense of the town of Athlone, which was taken by the 
English after a siege of several months. After the loss of 
Athlone, St. Ruth retired with his army into the county 
of Rosco?nmo?i, and having taken up a favorable position, 
near the ruins of the castle of Aiighrim, prepared to de- 
cide the fate of Ireland by a single battle. The engage- 
ment was commenced on both sides with equal resolution ; 
the fortune of the day seemed to incline in favor of the 
Irish; the English were repulsed with slaughter in every 
onset; a few moments more must have sealed their destruc- 
tion. At this critical juncture, St. Ruth fell by a cannon 
ball, shot from the enemy's battery. This unfortunate cir- 
cumstance changed the scale of victory. As the fallen gen- 
eral had not communicated his plan of action to any of the 
Irish leaders, no one was found at the moment capable of 
assuming the command. The Irish soldiers, unacquainted 
with the fall of their general, waited for new orders, until 
it was too late to oppose the success of the enemy. As 
each troop and battalion now acted independently, their 
evolutions soon interfered with each other ; the cavalry be- 
came mingled with the infantry, and before the close of the 
evening, their retreat became general. 

25. Before the fall of Si. Ruth, the Irish had scarcely 
lost a man ; after that event, they suffered severely. The 
number of the British killed and wounded was over 2,000 
men ; that of the Irish is said to have exceeded 7,000. 
General Ginckle, who commanded the British forces, was 



IRELAND. 283 

but little elated by his victory at Aughrim. He felt that 
it was nothing- better than a fortunate escape ; and from 
the spirit displayed by the enemy, he feared that the ter- 
mination of the war was still far distant. 

26. After the battle of Aughrim, the Irish forces retired 
to the city of Limerick, under the command of Sarsfield, 
who was again placed at the head of the army, although 
much controlled by the other leaders. As soon as time 
would permit, Ginckle laid siege to Limerick; but as the 
task of reducing the place seemed hopeless, and as both 
parties were weary of hostilities, it was determined to con- 
clude the protracted war by a treaty. Accordingly, on the 
23rd of September, a reluctant assent to this measure, was 
wrung from Sarsfield by the other leaders ; and on the even- 
ing of the same day a cessation of arms was granted, to af- 
ford an opportunity for settling the terms of capitulation ; 
and by the third of October, the articles of the treaty of 
Limerick were concluded, and solemnly signed by the dif- 
ferent authorities on both sides. 

27. This celebrated treaty provided, that ail the Roman 
Catholics should enjoy the free exercise of their religion, 
as in the reign of Charles II., and promised that their ma- 
jesties would endeavor to procure them further security in 
this particular, when the parliament should be convened. 
It was agreed that all the inhabitants of Limerick, all those 
in arms for James, should enjoy their estates and pursue 
their professions freely, as in the reign of Charles II., and 
that the Catholic gentry should be allowed to have arms, 
and should be required to take no oath, but that of alle- 
giance. 

28. Two days after the treaty was signed, a French fleet 
arrived off the coast, bearing reinforcements and a large 
supply of military stores. Never was there a more trying 
moment for the Irish leaders ; supplies, sufficient to insure 
them a triumphant victory, were at hand ; but the honor of 
their nation was pledged ; the treaty of Limerick was 
signed; that treaty they deemed inviolable; the French 
fleet was dismissed, taking with it several regiments of the 
Irish soldiery, who preferred to pass the remainder of their 
days in a foreign land, rather than live in bondage at home. 

29. Unfortunately for the period of which we are speak- 
ing, religious fanaticism, or intemperate zeal, seemed to 
characterize almost every proceeding. The treaty of Lim- 
erick was loudly denounced by many of the Reformed 
clergy, and Dr. Dopping, bishop of Meath, after condemn- 



284 IRELAND. 

ing the articles of that treaty, declared that Protestants were 
not bound to keep faith with papists. 

In 1695, the Irish parliament was assembled, and the 
first measure of that body, was to inquire into the articles 
of the treaty of Limerick. A committee was appointed 
to consider what penal laws were already in force against 
the Catholics, not for the purpose of repealing them as had 
been promised in the treaty, but to add others to their num- 
ber. To the act of uniformity of common prayer, which 
obliged all persons under the penalty of a fine, to be pres- 
ent at the worship of the established church on Sundays, 
and to the act allowing the chancellor to name a guardian 
to the child of a Catholic, the parliament added an act, to 
deprive Catholics of the means of educating their children, 
at home or abroad, and to render them incapable of being 
guardians of their own, or the children of others ; a second 
act was passed to disarm all Catholics, and lastly an act to 
banish all Catholic priests and bishops. Other acts were 
passed by subsequent parliaments, of a similar nature. No 
Catholic teacher was allowed to exercise his function in the 
kingdom. The child of a Catholic, on conforming, could 
at once receive an annuity from his father; no Catholic 
could hold an annuity for life : £50 were offered as the re- 
ward for the discovery of a Catholic bishop ; £20 for a 
priest; £10 for a Catholic schoolmaster. (See penal laws 
of Ireland, History of Ireland by W. C. Taylor. Vol. II. 
p. 207.) 



SECTION III. 

The Insurrection of 1798. 

1. Even a brief outline of this interesting portion of 
Irish history, cannot be given in this short compendium ; a 
few of the most important particulars must suffice. In 
1782, Ireland demanded and obtained from England, the 
independence of her national legislature. But it was with the 
utmost reluctance, and under circumstances of imperious 
necessity, that these concessions were made by the British 
cabinet. In 1784, the British parliament thought proper to 
annihilate the independence of the national legislature of 
Ireland, and impose new restrictions on her trade and manu- 



IRELAND. 285 

factnres. This treacherous and ungenerous proceeding, ex- 
cited a sudden and general indignation throughout the 
country. 

2. Among the various modes of agency adopted during 
this period, was the institution of political clubs, which 
were formed under different titles. Of these, the society of 
the United Irishmen and the Orange Association, were the 
most conspicuous. In the month of November, during the 
year of 1791, the society of United Irishmen, was insti- 
tuted in the city of Dublin. The leading objects of this 
association, seem to have been, a pure and disinterested 
love of liberty; and was formed with the immediate view 
of combining into one phalanx, as many as possible of their 
countrymen, without any distinction of creed, for the pur- 
pose of effecting a change in the government of Ireland, 
or as they themselves declared: " for the purpose of for- 
warding a brotherhood of affection, a communion of rights, 
and a union of power among Irishmen of every religious 
persuasion, and thereby to obtain a complete reform in the 
legislature, founded on principles of civil, political and re- 
ligious liberty." Catholic emancipation, and parliamentary 
reform, were the avowed objects of their pursuit. By the 
former, was understood a total abolition of all political dis- 
tinctions, between Catholics and Protestants ; by the latter, 
they meant to exclude the borough representation from the 
house of Commons. 

3. To oppose the objects of the United Irishmen, the 
aristocracy of Ireland proceeded to array an association of 
their own, under the name of the Orange party, which was 
formed for the purpose of perpetuating the abuses, and sup- 
porting the measures of the government, by disavowing 
every innovation. The leading features of Orangeism, may 
be traced to a period much anterior to this. Sir Jonah 
Barrington considers, that the idea of the Orange society, 
arose from the association of the aldermen of Skinner's 
aliey, which owed its origin to the restoration of the old 
corporation body to their former power and privileges, after 
the departure of James II. Their grand festival was held 
on the 1st of July, the anniversary of the battle of the 
Boyne. The charter-toast, the antiquity of which was of 
so ancient a date as the year 1689, was drunk by all the 
members present on their bare knees ; the grand master 
pronounced it aloud, in the following words: "The glori- 
ous, pious, and immortal memory of the great and good 
king William, not forgetting Oliver Cromwell, who assisted 



286 IRELAND. 

in redeeming us from popery, slavery, arbitrary power, &c." 
The concluding part of the toast, was a tissue of vulgar and 
impious imprecations on priests, bishops, deacons, &c. 
This toast was afterwards adopted by the Orange associa- 
tion.* 

4. In the year 1784, a new association grew into exist- 
ence, under the name of the Peep-of-day-Boys, who com- 
mitted the most fearful depredations in the county of Ar- 
magh. In a few years, however, they dropped this title 
and assumed that of Orangemen. 

The first Orange lodge was formed on the 21st of Sep- 
tember, 1795, at the house of a man named Sloan, in the 
village of Loughall. The members pledged themselves, 
by the most solemn oath, to support and defend, to the ut- 
most of their power, the king and his heirs, so long as he 
or they shall support the Protestant ascendancy. 

5. In 1796, hopeless of parliamentary relief, the United 
Irishmen overcame their repugnance to foreign aid, and re- 
solved to solicit assistance of France. Tone was commis- 
sioned for that purpose, and in the course of the summer, 
Lord Edward Fitzgerald and Arthur O'Connor., were 
sent over to negotiate a treaty between the French republic 
and Ireland. An armament carrying 15,000 men, with a 
considerable amount of arms and military stores, sailed for 
Ireland, but the fleet being dispersed by a violent storm, 
only a few vessels arrived in Bantry Bay, and these return- 
ed home without being able to effect a landing. 

6. In the mean time, it became the determined policy of 
the government, to goad the people by torture into a pre- 
mature insurrection, before the organization of their plans 
could be completed. Martial law was proclaimed in several 
counties ; a savage soldiery were encouraged to emulate 
each in acts of cruelty ; the tortures of whipping, half hang- 
ing and the pitch-cap, were put into active operation. The 
humble dwellings of the peasantry were burned, their sons 
tortured or slain, their daughters subjected to all the out- 
rages of brutal passion. At the same time, the most liberal 
rewards were held out to informers. In consequence of this, 
the government soon became acquainted with all the pro- 
ceedings of the United Irishmen, and most of the active 
leaders were arrested at Oliver Bond's house, on the 12th 
of March. Lord Edward Fitzgerald, who happened to 
be absent, eluded pursuit until the 19th of May, when, after 

*See Dr. Madden's History of United Irishmen, vol. 1, page 85. 



IRELAND. 287 

a desperate resistance, in which he was mortally wounded, 
he was made prisoner. The Shearses and others, who had 
been chosen to fill the places of those arrested at Bond's, 
were betrayed to the government by a militia captain named 
Armstrong. 

7. On the 23d of May, the insurrection broke out in the 
counties of Kildare and Carlo w. The peasants had no 
arms, but clumsy pikes and a few guns in bad repair ; they 
were of course easily defeated. The insurgents were next 
routed in Carlow, with a loss of 400 slain; and 200 more, 
who fell into the hands of the victors, were executed by 
martial law. At Oulart Hill, they were more successful ; 
they defeated the North Cork militia, took the town of 
Enniscorthy and the city of Wexford. Here, elated by- 
success and exasperated by the cruelties they had received, 
they committed a fearful retaliation on a number of the roy- 
alists, who fed into their hands. They were again defeated 
at Ross and repulsed at Arklow ; and loss of the desperate 
battle of Ballynahinch, terminated the insurrection in Ul- 
ster. 

8. After these defeats, the insurgents of Wexford, were 
reduced to the necessity of maintaining a defensive warfare, 
their last hope being to protract the contest, until assistance 
should arrive from France. Their principal encampment 
was on Vinegar Hill, a lofty eminence near the town of 
Enniscorthy. To this point, therefore, the government 
directed all its disposable force. They royal army of 
13,000 men, with a formidable train of artillery, approached 
this place in four different divisions ; and on the 22d of 
June, was fought the memorable battle of Vinegar Hill, 
which terminated in the complete discomfiture of the 
United forces, who were defeated with immense slaughter, 
not however for want of courage and resolution, but for the 
want of arms and ammunition. This defeat, properly, ter- 
minated the eventful struggle of Ireland for her national 
rights and redress of her grievances. The toial loss of 
property during the contest, is estimated at about three 
millions of pounds sterling. Of the royal army about 
30,000 were slain; but not less than 50,000 of the insur- 
gents were destroyed. 

9. Late in August, when all the disturbances had been 
suppressed, a small force of eleven hundred men, com- 
manded by General Humbert, arrived from France and 
landed at Killala. Want of means prevented Humbert from 
obtaining any particular advantage, and on the 8th of Sep- 



288 IRELAND. 

tember, he was forced to surrender. A second attempt was 
made by the French Directory in the following month. A 
small squadron sent from Brest, was discovered by Admiral 
Warren, and forced to engage at great disadvantage. The 
Hoche, of eighty guns, and six frigates, were captured ; 
this ended the efforts of France towards the liberation of 
Ireland. (For the lives of the most conspicuous perso?is 
during this struggle, see Biography.) 

10. Scarcely had the insurrection ended, when the ques- 
tion of the Union began to be agitated. It was so decided- 
ly unpopular, that exhausted as the country was by the late 
commotion, its independence might have been maintained 
by an appeal to arms, had not the minister by a wonderful 
mixture of corruption and cunning, effectually broken the 
strength of opposition. The measure of the Union, was 
rejected in the session of 1799, by the house of Commons ; 
but after the most, unparalleled scenes of bribery and de- 
ception, the measure was carried in the next session of the 
Irish parliament, which then consisted of 278, only by a 
majority of 43 votes. It was on the first day of January, 
1801, at the hour of noon, that the imperial united standard 
was for the first time mounted on the Bedford tower in 
Dublin, while the guns of the royal battery in Phcenix park, 
announced to prostrate Ireland, that her national independ- 
ence was no more, that her guilt-stained parliament had 
effected its own annihilation. 

11. The Catholics were induced to give a species of tacit 
assent to the measure, by the promise of obtaining their 
emancipation, a promise which was not fulfilled, until near- 
ly thirty years after this event, and then only wrung from 
the reluctant grasp of the British ministry. Hopes, incon- 
sistent with such a promise, were, at the same time, held 
out to the most violent Protestants ; money to the amount 
of £3,000,000, was distributed in bribes, to all those who 
would favor the views of government ; besides this, the en- 
ormous sum of £1,275,000, was given as a compensation 
to boroughs, for sending members favorable to the Union. 

12. The great evils entailed on Ireland by the union, are 
the vast increase of her naiional debt, and. the great ine- 
quality of her representation in parliament. By the act of 
the union, Ireland was to have a separate exchequer, and 
was only to be taxed in proportion to her own national 
debt, which at that time was only £26,841,219, while that 
of England reached the enormous sum of £420,305,944. 
In 1816, the British government thought proper to unite 



IRELAND. 289 

the English and Irish exchequers, in direct violation of the 
act of the union, and thus the debt of Ireland was increas- 
ed to £\ 10,730,519. As the Irish representatives in the 
British parliament, are far inferior in number, to those of 
the English, it follows as a matter of course, that no meas- 
ure conflicting with the English interest, will pass that 
body in favor of Ireland. Moreover, while Ireland is de- 
prived of her national legislature, her representatives in 
the British parliament are obliged to reside, a great portion 
of their time, in the capital of England, thus drawing from 
their native country, a great amount of wealth which would 
otherwise be spent at home. These and other evils, which 
tend materially to retard the prosperity of the country, 
render the Repeal of the Union a most desirable measure 
to the Irish people, for which they are making at the pres- 
ent time, the most strenuous efforts. 



SPAIN 



1. Spain was at any early period, called Hispania, or 
Western, because it was most western situation known to 
the ancients. It was also distinguished by the name of 
Iberia, from the river Iber, now Elro. Its present name, 
Hispania, or Spain, is said to be derived from a Phoenician 
word, which signifies abounding in rabbits, as these ani- 
mals, according to Strabo, were formerly very numerous 
in this country. The original inhabitants were the Celts, 
the same race that peopled most of the other countries of 
Europe, although the Spanish historians refer the origin 
of their nation back to the days of Tubal, the son of Ja- 
phet. 

2. Attracted by the fertility of the soil, the Phoenicians, 
who were the earliest navigators, passed over to Spain and 
built the city of Cades, now Cadiz, as early as the year 
900, before the Christian era. The Phoenicians wer^ dis- 
placed by the Carthaginians shortly before the first Punic 
war, and the Carthaginians, in their turn, were expelled 
from the country by the Romans, in whose power it re- 
mained until it was wrested from them by the irruption of 
northern barbarians. The Gothic princes held possession 
of Spain until near the middle of the eighth century, when 
their empire was overthrown by the followers of Mahomet, 
or the Saracens. 

3. The victorious infidels, known also in Spain by the 
name of Moors, in a few years possessed themselves of 
nearly the whole country, which was for some time gov- 
erned by the viceroy of the Saracen caliphs. At. the ap- 
proach of the invaders, the Goths retired to the mountain- 
ous district of Asturias, where, under their leader, Don 
Pelagio, they established a kingdom, which increased in 
power, and gradually extended over other parts of the 



SPAIN. 291 

country. Spain was divided by the Moors into a number 
of separate sovereignties, of which the most considerable 
were those of Cordova and Granada. For several centu- 
ries, the history of Spain presents a continual series of 
contests between the Moors and the Christians. During 
this long protracted struggle with the infidels, several dis- 
tinct Christian kingdoms grew into existence, of which 
Castile, Leon, Arragon, and Navarre, were the most im- 
portant. 

4. In the year 1479, Ferdinand II, king of Arragon, 
formed a matrimonial alliance with Isabella, queen of Cas- 
tile and Leon, and thus their kingdoms became united. 
Navarre was subsequently conquered, and of all the Moor- 
ish possessions in Spain, the kingdom of Granada alone 
remained. Attracted by the beauty and fertility of the 
country, and impelled by a desire of expelling the deter- 
mined enemies of Christianity, Ferdinand and Isabella, 
formed the project of reducing Granada. Having made 
the necessary preparations, they entered the country at the 
head of their united forces, and after meeting with a gallant 
resistance from Jlbdali, the Moorish king, Granada was 
taken, and the Moors expelled. The fall of Granada ter- 
minated the empire of the Arabs in Spain, after they had 
held possession of it for nearly two centuries, and the 
whole country became, for the first time, united into one 
monarchy. 

5. Ferdinand and Isabella, having at length subdued and 
expelled the enemies of their country, turned their whole 
attention towards the internal improvement of their king- 
dom. Rapine and outrage, the natural consequence of the 
long and sanguinary war, that had desolated the country, 
prevailed in every quarter. These evils they labored to 
remove, and by a wise and well regulated policy, they suc- 
ceeded in restoring order and tranquility throughout their 
dominions. It was during this period, and under the pat- 
ronage of Isabella, that Christopher Columbus discovered 
the Western Continent, an event which added an immense 
possession and wealth to the Spanish monarchy, and raised 
it for a time, above any other in Europe. [See America. 7 ] 

6. In 1517, Charles I. succeeded to the Spanish throne. 
On the death of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, he put 
forward his claim to the imperial crown, at the same time, 
Francis I., king of France, declared himself a candidate 
for the empire. The crown had previously been offered 
by the electors of Germany, to Frederick, Duke of Sax- 



292 spain. 

ony, who declined the offer and recommended the Spanish 
monarch, as the most suitable person on whom it could be 
conferred. Charles was accordingly elected emperor in 
1520, and assumed the title of Charles V. He now be- 
came the most powerful sovereign of Europe; his domin- 
ions extended over Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, and 
a part of Italy, besides his colonial possessions in Amer- 
ica. 

7. The reign of Charles was almost one unbroken series 
of hostilities, chiefly with his great rival, Francis I. of 
France. A few years previous to his death, he formed the 
extraordinary resolution of resigning his dominions to his 
son Philip, who had married Queen Mary, of England. 
Accordingly, in the presence of a numerous assembly at 
Brussels, having previously enumerated the principal events 
of his reign, he solemnly resigned his tl^one and transfer- 
red the sovereign authority to his son Philip, with so much 
parental affection, that the whole assembly melted into 
tears. After this he retired to the monastery of St. Justin, 
near Placentia, attended only by a few domestics, without 
pomp or splendor. In this humble and peaceful abode, the 
greatest monarch of the world, ended his days. The man- 
ner in which he closed his eventful life, was extraordinary. 
A short time previous to his death, stretching himself in a 
coffin, he caused the funeral rites to be performed, and af- 
ter the ceremony was over, he retired to his apartment in 
the deepest melancholy ; he was soon after seized with a 
violent fever, which terminated his life in the 58th year of 
his age. 

8. Philip II. succeeded his father to the throne of Spain. 
The most important events of his reign, were the revolt of 
the Lower Counties, which, after a long and bloody con- 
test, succeeded in establishing their independence ; and his 
unsuccessful invasion of England, which ill conducted meas- 
ure, cost him the ruin of his numerous fleet, called the In- 
vincible Armada. He was succeeded in the throne by his 
son, Philip III. The subsequent history of Spain affords 
but few events of interest or importance, until the reign of 
Ferdinand VII., who wrested the scepter from his father, 
and placed himself upon the throne; he had not however, 
long enjoyed the usurpation, when both father and son 
were compelled to resign their claim by Napoleon, Em- 
peror of France, who placed his brother Joseph upon the 
Spanish throne. The Spaniards rose in opposition to this 
tyrannical measure, and had recourse to England for assist- 



spain-. 293 

ance ; by their united efforts, the French were finally ex- 
pelled from the peninsula, A. D. 1813. Since the reign of 
Philip III., Spain has continued to diminish in power and 
importance, and at present only holds a secondary rank 
among the European powers. 

9. The Inquisition. Connected with the history of 
Spain, there is one institution that claims a passing notice, 
namely, the Inquisition. This institution was established 
in different countries of Europe, chiefly for the purpose of 
preventing innovations in the established religion of the 
realm. Its origin is dated as far back as the Council of 
Verona, held in the year 1184; although it was not legally 
established before the year 1233, in virtue of the bull of 
Gregory IX., addressed to the Provincial of Toulouse, and 
the superintendence of it at that period, was confided to 
the order of the Dominicans, about twelve years after the 
death of their founder, St. Dominic. But it was only in 
the year 1484, that the constitutional rules and order of the 
tribunal, were drawn up and published, by Cardinal Tor- 
quern ada, in conjunction with the king of Spain. 

10. Towards the close of the twelfth century, the Albi- 
genses seemed to threaten the peace of the church and the 
stability of the state, and for the security of both, it was 
deemed expedient to send among them certain ecclesiasti- 
cal commissioners, to inquire into the nature of their errors, 
and to endeavor to reclaim them. These commissioners 
were called Inquisitors, and from them the institution de- 
rived its name. It does not appear that the early inquisi- 
tors ever made use of any other arms to oppose the progress 
}f heresy than those of prayer, patience, and instruction, 
md while it remained purely an ecclesiastical tribunal, no 
coercive measures were ever adopted. 

11. In the process of time, the various sovereigns of 
Europe, passed severe laws against all those who promul- 
gated or obstinately maintained, doctrines contrary to those 
established in their respective dominions ; but as the offen- 
ces in those cases were always of a religious nature, it be- 
came necessary to refer the accused to ecclesiastical judges. 
Hence it was that the tribunal of the Inquisition, was 
idopted in different countries, when it ceased to be ecclesi- 
istical, and became a civil tribunal. 

12. The following circumstances led to its establishment 
n Spain. Towards the end of the 15th century, the Ma- 
lometan power in that country was destroyed, by the unit- ■ 
;d efforts of Ferdinand and Isabella ; the Moors were ex- 



294 Spain. 

pelled ; still many remained, and those so mingled with the 
Spanish population, that it became difficult to discriminate 
between them. Their well known hostility to the govern- 
ment and aversion to Christianity, caused them to be a sub- 
ject of continual alarm. To augment the danger, the power 
and influence of the Jews, at this period in Spain, became 
exceedingly great ; they finally broke out into open rebel- 
lion. The Cortes, now demanded that severe and coercive 
measures should be adopted against them ; and as the dan- 
ger increased, Ferdinand conceived, that in order to save 
Spain, nothing would contribute more effectually than the 
Inquisition. To this measure, Isabella at first strongly ob- 
jected ; but at length she was induced to assent, and the in- 
stitution was accordingly introduced about the year 1484. 

13. The tribunal was composed of one supreme head, 
called the Inquisitor General, who was either an archbishop 
or a bishop ; and of eight ecclesiastical counsellors, of 
whom, six were always seculars and two regulars, one in- 
variably of the Dominican order. The inferior inquisitors 
possessed no power to do any thing without the approba- 
tion of the Inquisitor General ; neither could the latter exe- 
cute any measure without the concurrence of supreme coun- 
cil. The duty of the tribunal of the Inquisition, was sim- 
ply to determine, upon the clearest evidence, whether the 
individual arraigned before it, was guilty or not, of those 
charges, declared capital by the civil law. If guilty, the 
sentence was given accordingly. Beyond this, the Inqui- 
sitors had nothing whatever, to do with the accused ; who 
was tlien left to the secular power, to be dealt with accord- 
ing as the laws of the state had ordained. The ecclesias- 
tics, who composed the tribunal of the Inquisition, had no 
power to condemn any one to death, and on no occasion do 
we find the name of any priest inscribed on a warrant for 
an execution. 

14. The Inquisition could not be introduced into any 
country, without the consent of the government; and when 
once established, it was generally under the immediate con- 
trol of the sovereign. The king alone appointed the In- 
quisitor General, who in his turn nominated the particular 
inquisitors, subject to the approbation of the king. In dif- 
ferent countries, various punishments were inflicted on 
those declared guilty of capital offenses by the tribunal of 
the Inquisition. At Rome, no one was ever known to have 
suffered death, in consequence of any sentence coming from 
the Inquisitorial tribunal. In Spain, the cruel punishment 



PORTUGAL. 295 

of burning to death, was the usual punishment inflicted on 
those, who obstinately maintained and promulgated errone- 
ous doctrines, or adopted them again, after having renounced 
them. The goods of the persons thus condemned, were 
confiscated to the state. The other punishments were less 
severe, and consisted in some slight penance or temporary 
confinement. If however, the accused recanted what was 
thought to be heterodox opinions, and gave signs of repent- 
ance, his trial immediately ceased and no punishment was 
inflicted.* 



PORTUGAL. 



1. The history of Portugal is closely united with that of 
Spain ; it partook of all the vicissitudes of that nation, being 
successively overrun by the Romans, Goths and Moors. 
About the year 1094, Alphonso, king of Castile, bestowed 
that part of Portugal which he possessed, with his daugh- 
ter in marriage, on Henry, duke of Burgundy, who had 
rendered him important services during his contest with the 
Moors. Henry was succeeded by his son Alphonso, who 
defeated the Moors in a great battle at Orique, threw off 
the Castilian yoke, and assumed the title of king, A. D. 
1139. 

2. The reign of John I. is distinguished by his victories 
over the Castilians and Moors, but more particularly for the 
progress the Portuguese made in navigation. During the 
reign of John II., Bartholomew Diaz, discovered the Cape 
of Good Hope ; and in a few years after this event, Visco 
de Gamma, doubled that Cape, and was the first navigator 
that accomplished a voyage to the Indies, A. D. 1497. 
From the reign of John I., down to the year 1580, forms 
the most brilliant period of Portuguese history. It is illus- 
trated by several important discoveries, and also by the pro- 
duction of several men of learning and genius. 

3. In 1580, Philip II. of Spain, taking advantage of the 
weakness of Portugal, occasioned by the extinction of the 
male line of the royal family, seized upon the country, and 

*For a more detailed account of this institution, the reader is refer- 
red to the letters on the Inquisition, by Count de Maistre, from which 
these few remarks have been chiefly taken. 



296 POLAND. 

united it to his dominions; by the revolution of 1640, the 
Spaniards were expelled and the duke of Braganza, the 
presumptive heir, was raised to the throne, under the title 
of John IV. In 1807, Portugal was invaded by the French, 
on which occasion, the royal family removed to Brazil, 
where they remained until the year 1820, when he again 
returned to Lisbon, leaving Don Pedro, his eldest son, as 
regent of that country. In 1823, Brazil renounced its alle- 
giance to Portugal, was declared an independent empire, 
under Don Pedro, who assumed the title of emperor. On 
the death of John VI., the throne of Portugal became va- 
cant ; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, resigned his claim to the 
crown in favor of his daughter, Donna Maria da Gloria, 
appointing his sister Isabella regent, during the infancy of 
the young queen ; but Don Miguel, a younger brother of 
Pedro, usurped the throne. 



POLAND 



1. The history of Poland exhibits but few important 
events, until near the early part of the fifteenth century, 
when the throne was occupied by Cassimer III., surnamed 
the Great. This illustrious prince founded the University 
of Cracow, patronized learning, encouraged industry and 
commerce; he also furnished the nation with a new code 
of written laws. Under the reign of Segismund I., who 
was a great and accomplished sovereign, Poland attained to 
the meridian of her greatness. But of all the sovereigns 
who swayed the Polish scepter, none have been more dis- 
tinguished than John Sobieski, who succeeded to the throne 
in 1674. He was elected, not from any hereditary right, 
but on account of his virtues and eminent military talents. 
He maintained a successful war against the Turks, and im- 
mortalized his name by obliging them to raise the siege of 
Vienna. He died in 1696, leaving the country prosperous 
and happy. 

2. Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, was chosen 
to succeed Sobieski, after an interregnum of twelve months. 
Shortly after his accession, he declared war against Charles 
XII., king of Sweden ; but being defeated, he was dethron- 
ed, and through the influence of Charles, at the Diet of 
Warsaw, Stanislaus was elected to the throne in his place ; 



POLAND. 297 

but after the defeat of the Swedish monarch at the battle of 
Pultowa, Augustus was again restored to the throne. The 
reign of his son Frederick Augustus II. was generally tran- 
quil. 

3. In 1763 Stanislaus Augustus was elected king of 
Poland, through the influence of Catharine empress of 
Russia. Civil commotions soon distracted the kingdom ; 
the malcontents were encouraged by the surrounding powers, 
who secretly increased the factions and difficulties in which, 
the state was involved, in order that they might the more 
effectually accomplish its ruin. In 1772 was perpetrated 
one of the most unjust and tyrannical acts recorded in his- 
tory, namely, the dismemberment of Poland, by Russia, 
Prussia and Austria. These three powers taking advantage 
of the disorder and weakness of the kingdom, agreed to 
divide Poland between them. 

4. In the first division, Frederick seized upon Polish 
Prussia, and a part of great Poland ; Catharine received 
Polish Livonia and a part of Lithunia; while Galicia and 
Lodomeria, fell to the share of the emperor of Austria. 
After an ineffectual struggle, unhappy Poland was obliged 
to submit to this dismemberment, and to sanction by a leg- 
islative act, the injustice that these powers had committed 
against her. In 1791 a revolution took place in Poland; a 
new constitution was formed, in which the crown, which 
had hitherto been elective, was declared hereditary, a mea- 
sure which met the entire approbation of the people. 

5. The empress of Russia, displeased with the new con- 
stitution because it opposed her ambitious views, ordered 
her troops to invade the Polish dominions. The Poles 
flew to arms in defense of the rights and liberties of their 
country. They chose for their general the brave and pat- 
riotic Kosciusko, who had borne a distinguished part in the 
war of the revolution in the United States. 

For some time they withstood the united forces of their 
enemies; but at length overpowered by numbers, they were 
defeated, and the gallant Kosciusko was taken prisoner. 
Warsaw was taken and sacked by Suwarrow the Russian 
general, and 9,000 Poles perished in the defense of their 
capital. A new division was now agreed on between Rus- 
sia, Prussia and Austria, which included a considerable part 
of the remaining portion of the Polish territory, A. D. 
1793. 

6. Stanislaus, the last of the Polish monarchs, worn out 
with age and infirmity, was compelled to resign his crown 

13 



298 Russia. 

at Grondo, where he died in captivity during the year 1795. 
This event broke the spirit of the Poles; a final division 
followed, by which the rapacious powers seized upon the 
remaining parts of the country. Thus ill-fated Poland by 
acts of the vilest tyranny, has been blotted out from the list 
of nations. During the reign of Nicholas, the present em- 
peror, an ineffectual struggle was made by the Poles, to re- 
gain the liberty of their country. Though overpowered 
by the numbers of the Russian army, they failed in that 
struggle ; still the courage and valor displayed by the pat- 
riots, proved to the world that the spirit of their freedom 
only slumbers, and awaits a favorable opportunity to arise 
from that slumber, and shake off the fetters that bind it. 



RUSSIA. 

1. The early history of Russia, which is greatly involved 
in obscurity, is marked by few events of importance. In 
the fifteenth century, John Basilowitz, recovered the coun- 
try from the dominion of the Tartars, and united a great 
part of it into one monarchy. But civilization made but 
little progress in Russia, until the reign of Peter the Great, 
who ascended the throne in 1689, and assumed the title of 
emperor. To this illustrious monarch, Russia is indebted 
for all her present greatness. His youth was spent in dis- 
sipation, and his education was much neglected ; but on as- 
cending the throne, he displayed talents and abilities that 
have ranked him among the greatest of the sovereigns of 
Europe. 

2. Peter's first military expedition was against the Turks, 
whom he signally defeated, and returning to Moscow after 
the capture of Azof, he caused the first medals to be struck, 
that were ever seen in Russia. In order to improve and 
polish the manners of his court, he sent a number of bis 
young nobility to travel, and to acquire a knowledge of for- 
eign countries. After this he resolved to go himself and 
visit the various states of Europe, in order to profit by his 
own personal experience and observations. In the capacity 
of a private, in the attendance of one of the nobles of his 
court, he travelled through Germany to Holland. At Am- 
sterdam, he engaged himself as a workman in the dock- 
yard, under the name of Peter Mickaeloff* From Holland 



Russia- 299 

he passed into England, where he was similarly employed 
and where he gained still higher improvement. At the end 
of sixteen months, he returned to his own dominions, car- 
rying with him the fruit of his experience, which he suc- 
cessfully employed for the benefit of his subjects. 

3. In 1711, Peter married Catharine, a young and beau- 
tiful girl, the daughter of a peasant of Ringen, a small vil- 
lage in Livonia. At this period, Charles XII., king of 
Sweden, the most renowned warrior of his age, who had 
astonished all Europe by the brilliancy of his conquests, 
invaded Russia at the head of a powerful army. Without 
the loss of time, Peter hastened to oppose his progress. 
They met in the famous battle of Pultowa, in which the 
Swedish monarch was signally defeated, with the loss of 
9,000 of his army killed, and 14,000 taken prisoners. The 
other principal events of his reign, were the destruction of 
the Sterlityes, a body of troops resembling the Turkish 
Janizaries ; the building of the city of St. Petersburg, and 
the institution of a numerous and powerful army. He died 
in 1725, not without some suspicions of being poisoned by 
the empress. 

4. Peter, as a sovereign, was unquestionably great; but 
as a man, he possessed many qualities that degraded his 
private character; he is said to have been cruel, passionate 
and given to intemperance. 

The empress, having ascended the throne under the title 
of Catharine I., was succeeded, after a prosperous reign of 
two years, by Peter II., grandson of Peter I. After a short 
and peaceful reign, he left the throne to his neice, Anne, 
dutchess of Courland. Her reign was prosperous, and ad- 
ded to the strength of the empire. Her generals gained 
several important victories over the Turks, and conquered 
several towns in Crim Tartary. On her death, John, an 
infant only a few months old, succeeded to the throne ; but 
by a sudden revolution, the young prince was deposed, and 
Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, was proclaimed 
empress. 

5. Her reign was more brilliant than any of her prede- 
cessors, with the exception of her father. She was a prin- 
cess possessed of eminent abilities and political talents. 
Her army was completely victorious over the Swedes, and 
her alliance was courted by Great Britain. 

Elizabeth was succeeded by her nephew Peter III., a 
weak and indolent prince. He had married Catharine, of 
Anhalty a German princess, who having discovered that it 



300 RUSSIA. 

was his intention to confine her for life, and to marry a lady 
of his court, entered into a conspiracy with her favorite, 
count of Orloff, against her husband, who was accordingly 
deposed and afterwards assassinated. 

6. Catharine was immediately proclaimed empress, under 
the title of Catharine II. Her reign was the most magnifi- 
cent in the history of Russia. She introduced elegance 
and refinement into her empire ; encouraged the arts and 
manufactures ; enlarged her dominions by extending her 
conquests over Poland, Crimea, and other territories. As 
an empress, she possessed extraordinary talents for govern- 
ment; but her total disregard for justice in her conduct to- 
wards defenseless Poland, has stamped an indelible stain 
upon her public character, while her private life was a dis- 
grace to her sex. She was succeeded by her son Paul, 
whose short and tyrannical reign was terminated by assas- 
sination, A. D. 1801. 

7. Alexander I., his eldest son, who now succeeded to 
the throne, was a wise and popular sovereign. During his 
reign, the power of Russia was extended, and public im- 
provement promoted. Alexander, alarmed at the progress 
of Napoleon, joined with Austria against him. But after 
many sanguinary battles, the Russian monarch was com- 
pelled to sign the peace of Tilsit. In 1812, upon the re- 
fusal of Alexander to concur in the scheme of the emperor 
of France, for excluding the British commerce from the con- 
tinent of Europe, Napoleon invaded Russia at the head of 
a powerful army. At Borodino, near Moscow, one of the 
most terrible battles was fought, recorded in history. When 
the French emperor made his disastrous retreat from Mos- 
cow, Alexander pursued the enemy beyond the limits of 
his empire, and entered Paris with the other allied sover- 
eigns, where Napoleon was dethroned. 

8. Alexander died in 1825, and was succeeded by his 
brother Nicholas I., whose reign has been distinguished by 
the successful termination of a war carried on against the 
Turks and Persians. His character has been deeply stained 
by his cruelty and tyrannical measures towards the Poles. 



PRUSSIA. 301 



PRUSSIA 



1. Little is known of the early history of this country. 
It was inhabited by a rude and barbarous race, called the 
Borussi, and denominated Brussia or Porussia, from 
which the. present name is derived. In 1594, Prussia and 
Brandenburg were united into one government, by a mat- 
rimonial alliance between John Sigismond, elector of Bran- 
denburg, and Anne, the daughter of Albert, duke of Prus- 
sia. On the death of Sigismond in 1619, his son, the 
elector, George William, succeeded to the government. 
During his administration, the electorate suffered the sever- 
est calamities, occasioned by the thirty years' war, which 
grew out of the religious controversies, which at that time 
distracted the continent of Europe. 

2. On the death of George in 1640, his son Frederick 
William succeeded to his dominions. By a wise and well 
regulated policy, he succeeded in removing the disorders 
into which the country had fallen, in consequence of the 
wars that continued to rage during the reign of his father, 
and at his death he left the electorate in a prosperous condi- 
tion. He was succeeded by Frederick I., who assumed the 
title of king in 1701 ; as previous to this period the coun- 
try was styled the electorate of Brandenburg, and the ruler 
the elector. 

Frederick was remarkable for his economy and frugality ; 
and even denied himself the ordinary comforts of life; in 
his manners he was rude and harsh, and treated his children 
with a degree of severity, bordering on brutality. 

3. Frederick II., styled the Great, who succeeded to the 
throne in 1740, is regarded as one of the greatest warriors 
of modern times. Shortly after his accession, he revived 
his claim to the dutchy of Silesia, invaded the country and 
defeated the Austrians, in the great battle of Molwitz. After 
the conquest of Silesia, he turned his victorious arms 
against Saxony. Having alarmed all Europe by the rapid- 
ity of his conquests, a defensive alliance was formed against 
him by France, Russia and Austria. A great and sangui- 
nary contest ensued, called the seven years 1 war, during 
which Frederick maintained his ground against his power- 
ful enemies, until peace was restored by the treaty of Hu- 
bertsberg. 

4. Frederick was remarkable for the severe discipline 
which he maintained in his army. On one occasion, while 



302 PRUSSIA. 

in sight of the enemy, he gave orders that all the lights in 
the camp should be put out at a certain hour under the pen- 
alty of death. It happened as he went round the camp to 
see if his order was obeyed, that he perceived the glimmer- 
ing of a light, proceeding from the tent of one of his offi- 
cers. As the king entered the tent, the officer, who was in 
the act of folding a letter, immediately arose and threw 
himself at the feet of Frederick, and implored his forgive- 
ness for having disobeyed his order, stating at the same 
time, that he had been writing a few lines to his wife, and 
on that account had retained the light for a few moments 
over the time appointed for extinguishing it. The king 
with a stern countenance, ordered him to add a few words 
more to the letter he had just concluded, and to inform his 
wife, that he would be shot on the following day ; this rig- 
orous sentence was accordingly executed. 

5. In the latter part of his reign, Frederick applied him- 
self to the internal improvement of his kingdom ; he built 
several towns, and gave encouragement to agriculture, man- 
ufactures and commerce. He was fond of literature, and 
possessed some merits as an author. In religion, he was a 
skeptic, and made Voltaire an intimate companion. The 
part he acted in the dismemberment of Poland, has proved 
him destitute of every principle of justice or humanity. 

6. He died in 1786, at the advanced age of 74 years, 
and was succeeded by Frederick William II., a prince more 
addicted to pleasure than to the affairs of government. Af- 
ter a short and unimportant reign, he was succeeded by 
his son, Frederick William III., in 1797. Frederick suffer- 
ed a memorable defeat in his contest with the French, un- 
der Napoleon, at the battle of Jena; and at the peace of 
Tilsit, he was deprived of nearly half of his dominions. 
In 1812, the Prussian monarch joined the coalition against 
France, and his army, under Blucher, at the famous battle 
of Waterloo, turned the fortune of the day against the em- 
peror Napoleon. By the treaty of Vienna, he gained a 
considerable accession of territory. Nothing of importance 
has since that period transpired in Prussia. Of late years' 
Frederick has bestowed much of his attention towards pro- 
moting the arts of peace, and the intellectual improvement 
of his people. 



GERMANY. 303 



GERMANY. 



1. Our knowledge of the primitive inhabitants of Ger- 
many, who were most probably of Celtic origin, is very 
limited, until the period of the Roman conquests in that 
country. At the time when Julius Caesar invaded the coun- 
try, Germany seems to have been divided into a number of 
independent principalities ; but the inhabitants frequently 
united tor their mutual defense, and the many bloody bat- 
tles they fought before they sunk under the power of the 
invaders, established their reputation for bravery. On the 
decline of the Western Empire of the Romans, Germany 
fell under the dominion of the Franks, and remained in 
their possession, until Charlemagne extended his power 
over the whole country. 

2. In the year 843, the Empire of the West was divided 
into three monarchies, France, Germany, and Italy ; and 
about the year 887, the imperial dignity was transferred 
entirely to Germany, which, in the history of Europe, is 
called, by way of distinction, the Empire, and the subjects, 
the Imperialists. After the death of Louis III., in 912, 
the empire became strictly elective, although, during the 
hereditary succession, the consent of the bishops and no- 
bility had always been asked. Conrad was the first elect- 
ed to the vacant throne; and after a reign of seven years, 
Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, was raised to the imperial 
dignity. Henry possessed great abilities, and introduced 
good order into his' dominions ; he built and embellished 
several cities, reduced and conciliated many of the revolted 
lords, subdued the Hungarians, Danes, Bohemians, &c, 
and added Lorraine to his empire. 

3. His son Otho I., was elected emperor in 936. He 
possessed all the abilities of his father, and pursued a sim- 
ilar system of policy. In 981, he invaded Italy at the so- 
licitation of the Italian states, during their contest with 
Berenger. Otho defeated Berenger, and Adalbert, caused 
himself to be crowned at Milan as emperor of the Romans. 
He died in 972, after an active reign of 30 years. Otho 
II. succeeded his father in 973, during whose reign, nothing 
of importance occurred. The reigns of his successors, 
Otho III., Henry II., Conrad II., and Henry III., are mark- 
ed by few striking events. Towards the close of the reign 
of Henry II., usually called St. Henry, the pious monarch 
wished to renounce all earthly grandeur, and applied to 



304 GERMANY. 

Richard, abbot of St. Viennes, in Lorraine, for admission 
into the monastery. The abbot received him, but imme- 
diately commanded him in virtue of a vow of obedience, 
to re-assume the government of the empire, for the honor 
of God and the good of his people, to which the monarch 
humbly, though reluctantly, submitted. 

4. Henry IV., surnamed the Great, succeeded to the 
throne in 1056, at the early age of six years. His reign 
is chiefly distinguished by his contests with the popes, the 
particulars of which may be seen under the head of Italy. 
The latter part of his life was imbittered by the unnatural 
rebellion of his own son, who openly revolted, and obliged 
him to abdicate the crown. The dethroned monarch was 
removed to Liege, where he shortly after died a prey to 
excessive grief, A. D. 1106, after a reign of 50 years, dur- 
ing which he had been present in sixty-two battles, in most 
of which he was victorious. His exploits, his bravery, 
and talents, have ranked him among the greatest sovereigns 
of Germany. 

5. Nothing of importance occurred in the history of Ger- 
many during the reigns of several succeeding emperors. 
The reign of Frederick I., surnamed Barbarossa, on ac- 
count of his red beard, was chiefly signalized by an expe- 
dition to the Holy Land, during which he was drowned in 
the river Cydnus, in Cilicia. After the reign of Conrad 
IV., a period of near 20 years of contention and confusion 
followed, called the Great Interregnum ; the disorder was 
terminated by the election of JRodolphus, count of Haps- 
burg, in Switzerland, to the imperial throne, A. D. 1264] 
The new emperor found the country in a state of anarchy 
and confusion, but by his wise and prudent measures, he 
succeeded in restoring order ; his reign was distinguished 
by many acts of virtue and justice. He left one son, from 
whom the present house of Austria, is descended, who af- 
terwards succeeded to the throne, under the title of Albert 
I., in 1298. 

6. In the reign of this prince, the Swiss revolted; at 
first only a few of the Cantons combined to assert their 
freedom ; and a small army of four or five hundred Swiss, 
defeated an immense host of Austrians, in the pass of Mor- 
gate, in 1315. The rest of the Cantons by degrees, join- 
ed the revolt, and with invincible perseverence, after sixty 
sanguinary battles with their enemies, they effected their 
independence. This event was chiefly effected by the pat- 
riotism of the famous William Tell, who was instrumental 



GERMANY. 305 

in producing this revolution, and in laying the foundation 
of his country's freedom. (See his life in Biog.) 

7. The reigns of the eight succeeding emperors, present 
few events of importance. The reign of Henry VII., how- 
ever, was memorable for the miseries under which Ger- 
many groaned during that period ; a raging pestilence and 
famine depopulated the towns and desolated the provinces. 
The rich sought an asylum in other countries while the 
poor perished for the want of assistance. Wolves and other 
beasts of prey, impelled by hunger, quitted the forest, 
and rushing into the towns, devoured the famished inhabi- 
tants ; cataracts of water, bursting from the mountains, 
swept trees and houses before them with violent impetuos- 
ity, white the earth was convulsed by frequent shocks, 
which seemed to agitate it to the very centre. 

8. Frederick III. succeeded to the throne in 1440. His 
family became the most powerful in Germany, by the mar- 
riage of his son with Mary, the heiress of Burgundy and 
the Netherlands. He was succeeded by his son, Maximil- 
ian I., a prince possessed of considerable abilities. He 
established peace among the German states, and freed the 
country from the disorders occasioned by the Feudal sys- 
tem. Maximilian was succeeded in 1519, by his grand- 
son, Charles V., the most powerful sovereign of his age. 
His long reign, which continued for nearly forty years, was 
almost one series of warfare, chiefly with his great rival, 
Francis I., of France. During this contest, in 1527, 
Charles took Rome, which for nine months, was given up 
to plunder. A few years after this event, he took the city 
of Tunis, and liberated 22,000 Christian slaves. A few 
years before his death, he resigned the crown of Spain to 
his son, Philip II., and leaving the throne of Germany to 
his brother Ferdinand, he retired to the monastery of St. 
Justin, in Spain ; here in this peaceful retreat, the greatest 
monarch of the age ended his days. The Reformation, 
which began to make considerable progress in Germany, is 
one of the most remarkable events in the history of that 
empire. It was first commenced by Martin Luther, an 
Augustine friar, who was then professor of divinity at Wit- 
tenberg, about the year 1517. (For particulars, see Chris- 
tian Church.) 

9. The reigns of the successors of Ferdinand, Maxi- 
milian II., and Rodolphus II., were generally peaceful 
and prosperous. The reigns of Ferdinand II., and Ferdi- 
nand III., were signalized by the thirty years' war, which 
13* 



306 GERMANY. 

commenced in the year 1618, and was terminated by the 
peace of Westphalia, in 1648. This celebrated war had 
its origin in the religious dissensions of the 16th century ; 
on the one side, was the Protestant confederacy, styled the 
Evangelical Union ; and on the other, the Catholic League. 
The final result of the contest, was the equal establishment 
of the Protestant and Catholic religions. 

10. By the death of Charles VI, in 1740, the male line 
of the. house of Hapsburg became extinct; his eldest 
daughter, the celebrated Maria Theresa, succeeded to his 
dominions. Her title however, was disputed by Charles, 
the elector of Bavaria ; this circumstance gave rise to the 
contest, styled the war of the Austrian Succession, which 
was terminated by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle^ in 1748, 
when the claim of Maria Theresa was acknowledged, and 
her husband, Francis of Lorraine, was invested with the 
imperial dignity. The empress was distinguished for her 
heroism, eminent talents, and affability. She built various 
hospitals and encouraged commerce and science. 

12. Maria Theresa was succeeded by her son, Joseph 
II, in the year 1765. The reign of this prince was sig- 
nalized by his war with the Turks, during which he died, 
and was succeeded by his brother, Leopold II., who, after 
a short reign of two years, left the throne to Francis II. 
Germany, during the French revolution, became the theatre 
of most of the wars carried on at that period. In 1804, 
Francis caused himself to be proclaimed hereditary emper- 
or of Austria, and two years subsequent to this event, he 
was compelled by Napoleon, the emperor of France, to re- 
sign the title of emperor of Germany, and absolve the Ger- 
man states from their allegiance. ,:, Thus ended the German 
empire, after it had continued from the commencement of 
the Western Empire, under Charlemagne, a period of 1006 
years. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, Austria 
joined the fifth coalition against him ; and after the second 
dethronement of the emperor, a new union was formed by 
the German states, called the Germanic Confederation. It 
was subsequently signed at Vienna, and the several states 
were reinstated by Austria, in nearly their former posses- 
sions. 



SWEDEN. 307 



SWEDEN 



1. The early history of Sweden is obscure and unimpor- 
tant. Together with Norway, it formed a part of ancient 
Scandinavia, and was first inhabited by the Cimbri, a race 
of German origin. In the latter part of the 14th century, 
Sweden, Denmark and Norway, were united into one king- 
dom by Margaret of Sweden, who has been styled the 
Semiramis of the Xorth. During the reign of Christian 
II. king of Denmark, a revolution took place, by which 
the Swedes were delivered from the Danish yoke, and Gus- 
tavus Vasa, a descendant of the ancient kings, was raised 
to the throne of Sweden. He was an able sovereign, an<J 
administered the government with advantage to his subjects. 

2. Gustavus Adolphus, one of the greatest of the Swe- 
dish monarchs, succeeded to the throne in 1611. He was 
eminent as a statesman, and is ranked among the greatest 
generals of his age. He was successful in his war against 
Denmark, Russia and Poland. In a war with the Imperial- 
ists, he defeated them in the battle of Leipsic, in 1 632 ; and 
again in that of Lutzen, in which he lost his life. He was 
succeeded by his daughter Christiana, who governed Swe- 
den with much prudence and wisdom, until the year 1654, 
when she resigned her crown to her cousin Charles Gus- 
tavus, left her country and devoted the remainder of her 
days in the pursuit of science and literature, first at Paris, 
and finally at Rome, where she died, having previously em- 
braced the Catholic religion. 

3. Charles XII. ascended the throne of Sweden in 1697, 
at the age of 15 years. Shortly after his ascension, he 
found his kingdom attacked in three different quarters, by 
Russia, Denmarrk and Poland. With a courage and resolu- 
tion not to be expected from a youth of seventeen, Charles 
successively took the field against these powers and signally 
defeated their forces. One of the most memorable victories 
recorded in history he obtained at Varna, where with only 
8,000 men, he defeated the Rrussian army of 80,000, of 
whom 30,000 were taken prisoners. 

4. Having reduced Courland and Lithuania, he entered 
Poland and took Warsaw and Cracow. A negotiation hav- 
incr been proposed on the part of Russia, Charles abruptly 
replied that he would treat at Moscow, then the capital of 
the Rrussian empire. Accordingly, in the midst of a severe 
winter he invaded Russia, and advanced with his army as 



308 SWEDEN. 

far as Pultowa, where he was met by his great rival Peter 
the Great. A tremenduous battle ensued, in which the 
Swedish monarch suffered a most disastrous defeat. After 
this Charles fled with the remainder of his forces into Tur- 
key, where he displayed the conduct of a maniac rather 
that of a wise and prudent prince. Being ordered to leave 
Turkey he refused to comply, and proceeded to fortify his 
camp. With only 3,000, men he defended himself some 
time against 20,000 Turks, and only yielded when he was 
taken by the arm and led forcibly to the tent of the Bashaw. 

5. Having at length returned from Turkey, he resolved 
upon the conquest of Norway. Accordingly, at the head 
of his army, he invaded that country in the month of Octo- 
ber, and with 18,000 men laid seige to Frederickshalle. 

On the 11th of December as he visited the trenches for the 
purpose of encouraging and animating his men, he stood 
with his arm resting upon the parapet, while the enemy 
j^oured a shower of balls upon the spot where he stood. 
In this exposed situation he remained for some time apparent- 
ly unconscious of his danger ; at length he was struck by a 
canon ball in the temple, and fell with a groan against the 
parapet. While in the act of falling, he grasped with his 
right hand the hilt of his sword as if to avenge the blow, 
a fact which forcibly displayed the characteristic of his 
mind. 

6. On the death of Charles in 1718, Sweden enjoyed 
comparative repose, under the reign of his sister Ulrica, 
and also under that of her husband the prince of Hesse, to 
whom she resigned her crown. On his death, Adolphus 
Frederick was elected to the throne. His reign was some- 
what disturbed by the factions of the senate. In 1771, 
Gustavus III. having succeeded to the throne, deprived the 
senate of their power and rendered himself absolute ; he 
made however, a moderate use of his power and the rest of 
his reign was passed in tranquility ; he was assassinated 
while attending a masquerade ball in 1792. 

7. Adolphus was succeeded by his son Gustavus IV., 
under the regency of the Duke of Sundermania. After a 
weak and extravagant reign he was dethroned, and the 
crown was transferred to the Duke of Sundermania, who 
assumed the title of Charles XIII. , A. D. 1809. But 
the king having no children, Bcrnadotte, a favorite general 
of Napoleon, was, through the emperor's influence declared 
crown prince, and obtained the right of succession, and on 
the death of Charles, quietly succeeded to the throne, A. 



DENMARK. 309 

D. 1818. He is regarded as a wise prince^anxious to pro- 
mote the happiness of his subjects. Previous to the acces- 
sion of Bemadotte, Norway was taken from Denmark and 
annexed to Sweden. 



DENMARK. 



1. The history of Denmark begins to emerge from ob- 
scurity, during the reign of Waldemar I. who obtained the 
throne in 1157, after ten years contest with his competitor. 
He laid the foundation of the city of Dantzic and subdued 
the Courlanders. In 1387, queen Margaret, a woman of 
extraordinary ability, ascended the Danish throne. ' She 
united Sweden, Norway and Denmark in one kingdom, and 
governed them with much prudence and wisdom. In 1448, 
Christian, count of Aldenberg, from whom the present 
royal family are descended, succeeded to the throne. 

2. The government was originally elective, and continued 
so until the year 1660, during the reign of Frederick III., 
when, by the voice of the people, it was changed into a 
hereditary and absolute monarchy. During the reign of 
Frederick IV., Denmark waged a successful war against 
Charles XII. of Sweden, which terminated shortly after 
the death of that monarch, by the peace of Stockholm. 
During the reign of Christian VI. and Frederick V., the 
kingdom remained in a peaceful and prosperous condition. 
Christian VII., a weak and dissolute prince, having ascend- 
ed the throne in 1666, married Caroline Matilda, sister to 
George III. of England. This unfortunate princess hav- 
ing been accused of harboring hostile designs against the 
government, in conjunction with counts Brandt and Stru- 
ensee, was arrested and sent to the castle of Bronenburg, 
with her infant daughter. The two unfortunate noblemen 
were immediately executed; Matilda however, was remov- 
ed to Zell in Hanover, where she died at the age of 23 
years. 

3. Frederick VI. succeeded his father to the throne, in 
1808. During the first year of his reign, at a time when 
the country was at peace, the British fleet under Lord 
Catheart and Admiral Gambier, bombarded the city of 
Copenhagen, under the pretense that information had been 



310 NETHERLANDS AND HOLLAND ITALY. 

received, that Denmark intended to throw itself on favor of 
France. The Danish fleet, consisting of 18 ships of the 
line and 16 frigates, were destroyed by the British. 



NETHERLANDS AND HOLLAND. 

1. The territories comprising the Netherlands and Hol- 
land, formerly embraced a great part of ancient Batavia. At 
an early period of their history, they were divided into va- 
rious small states, and governed by counts or earls. They 
were united to Germany subsequent to the reign of Char- 
lemagne, but regained their independence in the tenth cen- 
tury. In 1443, they became subject to Burgundy, at which 
time they began to excite the attention of Europe, for their 
extensive manufactures and commerce. They were again 
transferred to the house of Austria by the emperor Maxi- 
milian. 

2. In 1555, they were resigned by Charles V. to his son 
Philip II. of Spain, from whom they revolted and estab- 
lished their independence, under the title of the seven united 
provinces of Holland. Spain still retained possession of 
several smaller provinces, until the peace of Utrecht, in 
1703, when they were ceded to Austria. In 1795, the 
United Provinces were overrun and conquered by the 
French, on which occasion, the Stadtholder and his family, 
fled for protection to England. After remaining for some 
time united to the French empire, they were erected, by the 
congress of Vienna, into a kingdom under the government 
of the prince of Orange, who is styled the king of the 
Netherlands and duke of Luxemburg. 



ITALY. 

, 1. After the downfall of the Roman empire of the 
West, in 476, the Heruli overrun Italy and conquered the 
country. But their kingdom was of short duration. After 
the short space of thirteen years, Theodoric, the king of 
the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, invaded Italy, defeated 
and slew Odoacer, the king of the Heruli, and usurped his 
dominions, A. D. 493. 



ITALY. 3 1 1 

Theodoric, commonly called the Great, fixed his resi- 
dence at Ravenna ; he was an Arian in principle, but toler- 
ated his Catholic subjects; his administration of the govern- 
ment, showed him to have been a prince of great abilities. 
He died after a reign of 33 years. 

2. Italy was wrested from the power of the Goths about 
the middle of the sixth century, by Belisarius and Narses, 
the generals of Justinian, and again annexed to the empire 
of Constantinople. It next fell into the hands of the Lom- 
bards. Alboinus, the Lombard king, invaded Italy and was 
proclaimed king of the country, about the year 568. Their 
sovereignty in Italy lasted for about 206 years, under the 
reigns of twenty-two successive kings. 

3. About the year 774, Desiderous, or Didier, king of 
the Lombards took Ravenna, and carried his victorious 
arms to the walls of Rome. In this immergency, Pope 
Stephen sent to implore assistance from Constantine, the 
Greek emperor, in whose name the government of Rome 
was still exercised. But the emperor was at that time too 
much engaged in religious disputes, to think of sending his 
troops against the Lombards. In this extremity, the Ro- 
mans embraced the last resource which was left them, that 
of calling to their assistance Pepin, the monarch of France. 
Pepin readily accepted the invitation ; but before any act of 
hostility, deputies were sent to Astolphus, the king of the 
Lombards, to request that he would renounce his ambitious 
views. The fierce Lombard only answered the deputies 
with threats and insults. 

4. Pepin immediately crossed the Alps, and marched his 
army into Italy, defeated the Lombards and compelled them 
to conclude a treaty of peace on terms offered by the con- 
queror. Scarcely had the French king departed, when the 
perfidious Lombard recommenced hostilities and laid siege 
to Rome. Pope Stephen had recourse again to his royal 
protector, and Pepin again crossed the Alps, and obliged 
Astolphus to accede to a second and more humiliating treaty. 
The French monarch, before he returned to his own domin- 
ions, made a solemn grant of his conquered territories in 
Italy, to pope Stephen and his successors in the pontifical 
chair, thus raising the head of the Christian church to the 
dignity of a temporal sovereign, A. D. 755. The territo- 
ries thus bestowed, were called the ecclesiastical states, 
and have, to the present time, composed the temporal do- 
minion of the popes. This grant was afterwards confirmed 
by Charlemagne, the successor of Pepin, who completely 



312 ITALY. 

destroyed the Lombard kingdom in Italy after it had lasted 
for 206 years, A. D. 774. 

5. The principal states into which Italy is divided, are 
Venice, Florence, Naples, Sicily, the ecclesiastical states, 
Parma, and a few others. The republic of Venice first 
grew into notice during the ninth century. The Venetians 
were for a considerable time, the most commercial people of 
Europe. Florence became a republic in the thirteenth cen- 
tury, and maintained its independence for upwards of 200 
years. Genoa became a republic in 953, and was long dis- 
tinguished for its commerce. The little republic of San 
Marino, is distinguished for its great antiquity, and for the 
purity of its republican principles. It is under the imme- 
diate protection of the pope, and occupies a tract of only 
forty square miles, with a population of 7,000 inhabitants; 
it has retained its independence for more than 1300 years, 
and so jealous of its liberties, that the laws require the 
magistrates to be semi-annually elected. 

6. During the pontificate of Gregory VII. , a serious 
altercation took place between the pope and Henry IV., 
emperor of Germany. It seems that it had been the cus- 
tom in various countries, for the emperors to put the newly 
elected bishops and abbots in possession of their benefices, 
by giving them the ring and the crosier, the symbols of 
their pastoral authority. But as this ceremony, called in- 
vestiture, seemed to imply the conferring of spiritual juris- 
diction by temporal princes, it was considered as an en- 
croachment on the rights of the church. The emperor 
Henry however, besides exercising this privilege, carried 
on a shameful traffic in ecclesiastical dignities, bestowing 
them, not on the most worthy, but on those who offered 
him the largest sums of money. Against these abuses, 
pope Gregory loudly declaimed ; but his entreaties and ex- 
postulations were disregarded. Henry instead of reforming 
his conduct, convened an assembly at Worms, in which, 
with the aid of a body of schismatical associates, he pre- 
sumed to pass sentence of deposition against the pontiff, 
A. D. 1076. 

7. Upon receiving intelligence of this outrageous act, 
Gregory proceeded to put into execution the fullest ex- 
tent of his power. With the advice of a numerous coun- 
cil, taking into consideration the obduracy of Henry and 
the repeated complaints of his oppressed subjects, he ex- 
communicated him, and pronounced the monarch fallen 
from his royal dignity ; and at the same time, declared the 



ITALY. 313 

Germans no longer bound by their former oath of allegiance 
to him. Singular as this power may appear, which Gre- 
gory exercised on that occasion, still it was admitted by his 
contemporaries, that such power lay within the sphere of the 
papal jurisdiction, and it was supported by the civil and 
common jurisprudence of that period. This doctrine, al- 
though hostile to the independence of sovereigns, was often 
supported by the sovereigns themselves. Thus, when 
Richard I. of England, was detained a prisoner in Ger- 
many, his mother Eleanor, repeatedly solicited the pontiff 
to procure his liberation by the exercise of that authority, 
which he possessed over temporal princes. Again, John, 
the successor of Richard, invoked the aid of the same au- 
thority to recover Normandy from the French king. At 
what particular period, the popes began to exercise this 
power, does not appear; nor is it exactly certain, what the 
particular circumstances were which gave rise to it. 

8. At first they only exercised their spiritual censures ; 
but in an age when all ideas of justice were modelled 
after the feudal jurisprudence, it was soon admitted, that 
princes, by their disobedience to the spiritual power of the 
church, had violated the oath of their coronation, and be- 
come traitors to God ; and as such they had forfeited their 
kingdoms; and in the case of Henry IV., we hear the 
Germans expressly declare, that they had sworn fealty to 
him, on condition that he should reign for the edification, 
and not for the destruction of the church, and were he to 
infringe this duty, they would think themselves no longer 
bound by their oath of allegiance to him. (See Schlegel, 
Philos. II., page 137.J 

To pronounce the sentence, by which they were freed 
from the allegiance, was thought to belong exclusively to 
the sovereign pontiff, who was regarded as the head of the 
church. 

9. This power, however, and other extensive privileges 
acceded to the pope at this period, would appear to be alike 
injurious, both to the church and state. It was injurious to 
the church, since the favor of the pontiff carried with it so 
much importance, it became an object of the greatest mo- 
ment among the sovereigns of Europe to conciliate that 
favor. Hence we find, that the election of a pope, fre- 
quently gave rise to factions and intrigues among the various 
princes of Christendom, in order to have a pontiff elected, 
who would perhaps lend his influence to promote their in- 
terest or carry some political object. Hence the interests 



314 ITALY. 

of religion frequently suffered. It was again injurious to 
the state, because the pope, as a man, was liable to be led into 
error, was subject to all the frailties and even the vices of 
human nature ; hence he might abuse these powers, and 
exercise them to the detriment of sovereigns. 

10. At the news of the sentence pronounced by pope 
Gregory VII., the princes of Germany assembled in order 
to appoint another emperor in the place of Henry. The 
distressed monarch, seeing that there was no other way left 
of averting the storm that he had occasioned, than by be- 
coming reconciled to the see of Rome, departed for Italy, 
determinated to effect his reconciliation on any terms. 
Gregory had left Rome and advanced as far as Canosse, on 
his way to Germany ; here Henry met him in a penetential 
garb, presented himself at the gates of the castle, and hum- 
bly begged to be admitted into the presence of the pontiff, 
acknowledging his guilt and expressing his readiness to 
make all the satisfaction in his power. Gregory, who had 
repeatedly experienced the insincerity of the emperor, kept 
him by way of trial, in suspense for three days ; on the 
fourth day, he gave him an audience, received his submis- 
sion and absolved him on certain conditions. 

11. The repentance of Henry, was of short duration. 
Having assembled a numerous army, he refused to comply 
with the terms to which he had subscribed, and resumed 
his former course of violence against the church and state. 
At length the German princes, disgusted with the perfidi- 
ous conduct of their sovereign, proceeded to the election of 
another; the choice fell upon Rudolph, Duke of Suabia. 
A civil war ensued, which terminated in the death of Ru- 
dolph, who perished in a battle near Mersburg, leaving Hen- 
ry master of the empire. Elated by this success, the con- 
queror marched into Italy, and having taken Rome, he 
entered the Lateran palace, and caused the excommunicated 
bishop of Ravenna, to be declared pope, under the. title of 
Clement III. In the mean time, Gregory had retired to 
the strong castle of St. Angelo, where he remained until 
the arrival of Robert Guiscard, the leader of the Normans, 
who obliged Henry to retire with his anti-pope. The law- 
ful pontiff was thus left master of the city ; but as party 
violence rendered it unsafe or unpleasant for him to remain 
there, he removed to Mount Cassino, and finally to Saler- 
no, where he was taken dangerously ill. A few moments 
before his death, he uttered these words : " I have loved 
justice, and have hated iniquity ; wherefore I die in a 



ITALY. 315 

strange land ;" after this he calmly expired, on the 25th of 
Vlay, A. D. 1085. 

12. In 1311, Henry VII., emperor of Germany, invaded 
taly, and caused himself to be crowned king of Lombardy, 

it Milan. Italy was at this period, in a state of anarchy, 
livided by two contending factions, which took their origin 
luring the civil war in Germany ; the one in favor of the 
Jmperor, styled the Ghibellines, the other his opponents, 
sailed the Guelphs. During the contest, the pope, finding 
lis situation at Rome unpleasant, removed the seat of his 
)ovver to Avignon, in France. In 1377, the Holy See was 
igain removed back to Rome, by pope Gregory IX. After 
lis death, the citizens of Avignon and Rome contended for 
-he freedom of election. This gave rise to that celebrated 
contest for the pontifical chair, called the Great Schism of 
:he West; the affair was finally settled by the Council of 
Constans, and tranquility restored by the election of Mar- 
Lin Colonna. 

13. The illustrious family of the Medici, at this period, 
ittained to a high degree of eminence in Florence, under 
Cosmo de Medici, who received the title of Grand Duke 
3f Tuscany. The power of the Medici, which continued 
jpwards of a century, forms a brilliant era in literature and 
the liberal arts; and the republic enjoyed a high degree of 
splendor during that period. Cosmo himself, was a liberal 
patron of science, and employed his immense wealth in 
srecting works of taste and literary institutions. His dwell- 
ing at Florence exceeded in magnificence, any palace in 
Europe; yet he was plain and unassuming in his private 
character. Cosmo II., who succeeded to the head of the 
government in 1537, encouraged the fine arts, and is said 
to have been the most magnificent patron of genius, since 
the days of Augustus. 

13. The subsequent history of Italy affords few events 
of importance, until the period of the French revolution. 
The Italian states shared largely of the convulsions caused 
by the event. The French overrun the ecclesiastical states, 
look the city of Rome, and dragged the aged pontiff, Pius 
VI., captive into France, where he died, in 1799. The 
kings of Naples and Sardina, were likewise driven from 
their dominions. In 1809, Napoleon solicited the pope, to 
close his harbors against British commerce, and become a 
party in the war against Russia. To these measures, Pius 
VII. returned a positive refusal, saying that, .*• being the 



316 TURKEY. 

father of all Christian nations, he could not, consistently 
with that character, become the enemy of any one." 

14. The emperor, highly incensed at this courageous re- 
ply, issued a decree at Vienna, declaring the Ecclesiastical 
state annexed to his empire. The venerable pontiff was 
immediately sent into captivity and exile, having previous- 
ly pronounced the sentence of excommunication against the 
emperor. The pope remained in captivity for about five 
years, until after the first dethronement of Napoleon, in 
1814, when he again returned to Rome. 



TURKEY. 



1. The Turks derive their origin from the Huns, who 
inhabited Grand Tartary, in Asia. At the commencement 
of the 8th century, we find them issuing from their obscure 
retreat, and settling in Pannonia and Asia-Minor. At first 
their dominions were divided into various small states, and 
governed by persons called Emirs. Towards the close of 
the 12th century, Othman or Ottoman, who assumed the 
title of Sultan, succeeded in uniting them in one monarchy, 
and established the seat of his government at Prusa, in 
Bythinia. 

2. Previous to this period, the Turks or Ottomans, (so 
called from the name of the founder of their monarchy,) 
had embraced the religion of Mahomet, which they retain 
to the present time. During the reign of this monarch, 
they extended their dominions to the borders of the Greek 
empire; and during the reign of his successor, they cross- 
ed the Hellespont on rafts, took Gallipoli, entered Thrace, 
and thus laid the foundation of their empire in Europe. 
Bajazei I. had formed the project of invading Greece and 
reducing its capital, Constantinople, but was obliged to de- 
fer the execution of his design, in order to defend himself 
against the encroachments of the celebrated Tamerlane, 
king of the Usbec Tartars, who had invaded his dominions. 
The two mighty chieftains met at Angora, where was 
fought one of the most sanguinary battles recorded in his- 
tory. The united combatants amounted to nearly a million 
of men, of whom 300,000 were left dead upon the field. 
Bajazet fell into the hands of the conqueror, and shortly 
afterwards destroyed himself in despair. 



TURKEY. 317 

3. The reign of Amurat II. was distinguished by his 
unsuccessful attempt to render himself master of the Greek 
capital, and his war with Poland. He was succeeded by 
his son Mahomet II., surnamed the Great, who immediate- 
ly undertook the favorite object of his predecessor, namely 
the reduction of the capital of the Eastern Empire. After 
some short delay in making the necessary preparations, he 
assailed the city of Constantinople both by sea and land. 
The indolent inhabitants, deeming themselves secure be- 
neath the shelter of those walls, which for ages had bid de- 
fiance to every assault, made but a feeble preparation for 
their defense. Constantine, the last of the Greek emper- 
ors, alone seemed conscious of the impending danger, and 
began to prepare with prudence and vigor, for the contest 
that was to decide the fate of his empire. 

4. He continued night and day with his troops, to ani- 
mate them by his presence, and to encourage them by his 
example. On the other hand, Mahomet, by the promise 
of increased pay and the spoils of the city in case of vic- 
tory, stimulated his soldiers to redoubled energy. Both 
ancient and modern artillery, were brought to bear during 
this memorable siege. The impregnable walls of Constan- 
tinople, at length yielded to the combined force of the bat- 
tering-ram and the cannon. On the 29th of May, the city 
was taken by an assault and delivered up to the plunder of 
the victors. Constantine fell gloriously defending his coun- 
try and his throne, and was afterwards found buried amidst 
the heaps of the slain. 

5. The great church of St. Sophia, was immediately 
converted into a mosque, and the Turkish crescent elevated 
upon the dome where the cross had for ages reigned. A 
crier proclaimed a public invitation to prayer, in the name 
of God and his prophet, and Mahomet II. knelt at the altar, 
where only a few days before, the ill-fated Constantine, the 
last of the Caesars, had received the Christian sacrament. 

6. On the fall of Constantinople, Mahomet carried his 
victorious arms over all Greece and Epirus. But death put 
an end to his career of conquest in 1481. His successor, 
Bajazet II., after carrying on various wars against the 
Saracens, Venetians, Hungarians, and others, was com- 
pelled to abdicate his crown to his ungrateful son, by 
whose order he was basely murdered. During the reign 
of Salim I., Syria and Egypt were conquered. His suc- 
cessor, Solyman I., surnamed the Magnificent, was the 
most illustrious of all the Turkish sovereigns ; he took the 



318 MODERN GREECE. 

island of Rhodes, from the knights of St. John, laid siege 
to Vienna, reduced Bagdad, established his dominion over 
the whole of Assyria and Mesopotamia, and passed many 
excellent laws. 

7. The reigns of his successors, Selim II. and Amarath 
III., were not marked by any transaction of importance. 
Mahomet III. commenced his reign by a display of unpar- 
alleled barbarity ; he caused nineteen of his brothers to be 
strangled, and ten of his father's wives to be drowned. 
The empire, however, continued to flourish except in the 
naval department. Othman II. invaded Poland, where he 
suffered a most signal defeat, with the loss of 80,000 men, 
and ended his life by assassination. Amurath IV. took 
Bagdad, and caused 30,000 Persians to be slaughtered ; dur- 
ing the reign of Mahomet IV., Condia fell under the Otto- 
man power after sustaining fifty-six assaults, in which the 
Turks lost 118,000 men. Mahomet afterwards besieged 
Vienna, with an army of 200,000, from which he was 
compelled to retire in disgrace, through the intrepidity of 
John Sobieski, king of Poland. 

8. The small but enterprising and martial republic of 
Venice, for one hundred and fifty years checked the Otto- 
man power. Since the reign of Achmet III., who was 
deposed in 1730, the Turkish power has been on the de- 
cline. The reign of Mustapha III. was distinguished by a 
ruinous war with Russia, which continued with but little 
intermission, until the reign of Selim III. in 1792, when it 
was terminated by making important concessions to the 
Russian empire. During the reign of Selim, Buonaparte 
invaded Egypt, and took possession of Cairo and all the 
Delta. The year 1821, was distinguished for the com- 
mencement of the Greek revolution, which finally resulted 
in the emancipation of Greece from the power of Turkey. 



MODERN GREECE. 

1. In our view of ancient Greece, we pursued its history 
to its final conquest and subjugation by the Roman arms. 
The subsequent history of this country, until the building 
of Constantinople, and the great division of the Roman 
empire, by the transfer of the seat of government from 
Rome to that city, presents but few events of importance. 



MODERN GREECE. 319 

After the death of Theodocius the Great, the last sovereign, 
who presided over both divisions of the empire, his son 
Jlchadius reigned in the East, and therefore may be regard- 
ed as the first of the Greek emperors. 

2. He was a weak and indolent prince, controlled in 
every transaction by his wife Edoxia, a haughty and im- 
perious woman ; his whole reign presents scarcely a single 
action worthy of the son of the illustrious Theodocius. 
He was succeeded by his son Theodocius the Younger, 
whose reign was short and like that of his father, was un- 
important. The emperors who succeeded Theodocius, 
until the reign of Justinian , have left behind them no trans- 
actions that deserve a notice in this short compendium. 

3. Justinian had been associated in the empire with 
Justin I., and succeeded to the sole command on the death 
of that emperor, in the year 527. Justinian displayed his 
greatest wisdom in the choice he made of his ministers; 
and his reign is conspicuous, not for any memorable trans- 
action of his own, but chiefly for the military opperations 
of his generals. The great and illustrious Belisarius, one 
of the most distinguished of his generals, defeated the Per- 
sians in three sanguinary battles ; destroyed the kingdom 
of the Vandals in Africa, and led their sovereign captive to 
Constantinople ; wrested Italy from the hand of the Gothic 
princes, and restored it for a short period to the dominions 
of Justinian. 

4. The Goths a second time overrun Italy, and again 
Belisarius was sent against them. But being left without 
the means necessary for conducting the war, that illustrious 
general was doomed to see his former prosperity decline, 
and himself treated with neglect by the man, whose empire 
he had so repeatedly and so successfully defended, against 
its foreign and domestic enemies. He was superseded in 
the command by Narses, who had the honor of terminating 
the war in Italy. He defeated Totila, in a decisive engage- 
ment on the plains of Lentagio, in which the Gothic king 
was slain, and governed Italy under the title of duke for 
thirteen years. 

5. While victory crowned the arms of Justinian in the 
West, the ravages of war threatened the destruction of his 
empire in the East. Chosroes the Great, king of Persia, 
for several years spread devastation over the rich and fertile 
provinces of Mesopotamia and Syria, frequently routing the 
army of the emperor with immense loss. Scarcely was 
peace concluded with this formidable enemy, than the 



320 MODERN GREECE. 

Huns, a furious and warlike race, made an irruption into 
Thrace and even threatened the capital itself. Once more 
the empire was saved, through the valor of Belisarius. 
Though far advanced in years and scarcely able to wield his 
sword, he marched against the barbarians and compelled 
them to retire. Unfortunately for this great man, he lived 
under the reign of a prince who was unable to appreciate 
his merits. In return for his many services rendered to the 
empire, the ungrateful Justinian, on mere suspicion of his 
being privy to a late conspiracy, stripted him of all his 
honors, caused him to be arrested and cast into prison, 
where he languished for several months. (See his life in 
Biography,) 

6. Justinian died in the 84th year of his age, and in the 
39th of his reign, A. D. 565. It was not, however, the 
military operations of this prince that render his reign so 
distinguished. The famous body of laws prepared under 
his direction by the learned Thebonian, known by the name 
of the Justinian Code, have reflected a brighter lustre on 
his name, and have conferred greater benefits on posterity 
than all the military achievements of his generals. From 
this code, the different states of Europe have derived the 
greater portion of the laws that make up their respective 
codes. Previous to the time of Justinian, to become ac- 
quainted with the ancient jurisprudence, it was necessary 
to peruse near 2,000 volumes, a task which would take the 
longest life-tirne to perform. The Justinian code was com- 
prised in about fifty books, to which were added four others 
called the Institutes, containing the fundamental principles 
of all legislation. 

7. Justinian was succeeded in the empire by his nephew 
Justin II. Though a prince of much virtue, Justin was a 
man of weak intellect and wholly governed by his consort 
Sophia, whose arrogant conduct brought new disasters on 
the empire., Against Narses, who still governed in Italy, 
the empress had long harbored a deadly hatred ; and now 
believing herself in an elevation from which she could fear- 
lessly wreak her vengeance, she sent him an insolent order 
to quit Italy and return to Constantinople. Narses, who 
inherited much of the military abilities of Belisarius, but 
wanted the patriotism and virtuous forbearance of that illus- 
trious general, wrote to Alboinus, the king of the Lom- 
bards, and invited him to Italy to avenge the insult he had 
received. But scarcely had he consented to this hasty step, 
than he repented of an act which tended to dishonor a life, 



MODERN GREECE. 321 

otherwise distinguished by so many brilliant achievements. 
But his repentance came too late to prevent the evil ; the 
Lomhards had already set out for Italy, and having crossed 
the Alps, they subdued that part of the country called from 
them Lombardy, and made Pavia the capital of their king- 
dom. 

8. The Persians under Chosrocs, again laid waste the 
eastern provinces of the empire. At the intelligence of 
these disasters, Justin was thrown into a deep melancholy 
which gradually degenerated into a partial insanity. Per- 
ceiving that he was unable to direct the affairs of govern- 
ment alone, he had the prudence to associate with himself 
a colleague in the empire. The choice fell upon Tiberius 
a man in every respect qualified for the important station. 
The honor of the empire was soon retrieved; Chosmes 
was driven to the extremity of Persia, where being unable 
to survive his defeat, he died of grief and despair after a 
reign of 48 years. 

9. Thejvords of Justin upon the introduction of Tibe- 
rius to the empire are worthy of record : " Love the peo- 
ple as yourself, cultivate the affection and maintain the dis- 
cipline of the army ; protect the fortunes of the rich, and re- 
lieve the necessities of the poor." Tiberius during his short 
reign, which lasted four years after the dpath of Justin, 
was never known to depart from this excellent advice; and 
on* his death bed he nomfnated Maurice, who had proved 
himself an able gmera', as his successor to the throne. 

10. The reign of this prince was turbulent and his end 
tragical. He possessed many virtues, and on some occa- 
sions displayed a considerable degree of prudence and cour- 
age, but avarice is said to have been his greatest fault. 
During one of his campaigns. 12,000 of his troops fell into 
the hands of the enemy ; Maurice refused to redeem them 
although but a small sum was asked for their ransom ; this 
refusal so enraged the barbarians that they put them all to 
the sword. While this conduct excited against him the 
loudest complaints, he had the imprudence to order his 
troops to take up their quarters in the enemies country, and 
to subsist there during the winter by plunder. The soldiers 
exasperated at this command revolted, and having proclaimed 
Phocas emperor, advanced towards Constantinople. 

11. At the news of this event, Maurice endeavored to 
make his escape with his family ; but at Chalcedon he fell 
into the hands of his pursuers, and his five sons were bar- 
barously put to death in the presence of their unhapy father, 

14 



822 MODERN GREECE. 

who in the bitterness of his affliction, repeated these words 
of the royal prophet : " Thou art just O Lord, and thy 
judgment is right." When the nurse endeavored to con- 
ceal the royal infant and offered her own child to the exe- 
cutioner, Maurice refused to allow the deception. The 
tragical scene was ended by the execution of the emperor 
himself, who fell with his unfortunate children. 

12. Phocas did not long enjoy his ill-gotten crown. 
While he remained shut up in his capital, Chosroes II. king 
of the Persians, crossed the boundary of empire and spread 
desolation over some of the most fertile districts of Meso- 
potamia and Syria. The senate of Constantinople seeing 
nothing done for the defense of the empire, invited Herac- 
lius, the governor of Africa, to their assistance, offering 
him the purple as the reward of his services. Heraclius 
having declined the honor on account of his advanced age, 
the offer was eagerly embraced by his son of the same 
name, who immediately embarking with a select body of 
troops, arrived before the walls of Constantinople almost 
before the usurper had any intimation of his approach. 
Phocas, deserted by his friends, was instantly seized and be- 
headed ; while at the same time Heraclius was proclaimed 
emperor. A. D. 610. 

13. The reign of this emperor was almost one unbroken 
series of war and victory over his formidable neighbors die 
Persians, whom he defeated in six successive campaigns, 
and at length obliged them to sue for peace. During his 
reign, which lasted for upwards of thirty years, he continued 
to defend and preserve the dignity of the empire. The 
several emperors who succeeded Heraclius, have left little 
of importance to distinguish their reigns. The reign of 
Constantine Pagonatus, is conspicious for the memorable 
siege which Constantinople sustained against the Saracens, 
who for several successive years presented themselves be- 
fore the walls of the city, but were as ofien vigorously repul- 
sed and at last obliged to abandon the enterprize. One of the 
most destructive agents used by the Greeks during this age, 
was the Grecian Fire, which had the peculiar property of 
burning in water, and could only be extinguished by sand, 
wine, or vinegar. It was invented by a Syrian named Collini- 
cus, and employed with great effect by the Greeks in their 
different wars for several centuries, before the secret of its 
composition was discovered by the neighboring nations. 

14. Justinian II. who succeeded Constantine, was dis- 
tinguished for his cruelty \ he was a* length banished from 



MODERN GREECE* 323 

the empire, but having regained the throne by the assis- 
tance of the Bulgarians, he exercised the most fearful ven- 
geance on his enemies ; his reign however, was cut short 
by assassination. In the short space of six years, the septer 
passed through the hands of three successive emperors. In 
717, Leo, surnamed the haurian, succeeded in wresting 
it from the hand of the weak Tlieodocius III. 

15. The reign of this monarch is more conspicious for 
the hostility he manifested towards the use of sacred ima- 
ges in the churches, than for any important service he ren- 
dered to the empire. Leo, unable to comprehend that the 
veneration of images, is only an inferior honor paid to the 
persons whom they represent, published a violent edict 
against the use of them in the churches. In consequence 
of this order, the pictures and images of Christ and of 
the Saints were removed ; not however, without causing 
loud complaints and much disturbance. On one occasion, 
Leo ordered the execution of twelve librarians, whom he 
Was unable to gain over to his party, and caused the de- 
struction of the public library of Constantinople. The 
persecution was carried on under his successors, Constan- 
tine and Leo IV., until the affair was finally settled by the 
seventh General Council, held at Nice, which solemnly 
decided that the relative honor paid to images, was in accor- 
dance with Scripture and the early practice of the church, 
and free from the charge of idolatry and superstition. 

16. During the minority of Constantine V., the empress 
Irene his mother, was appointed regent.^ She was a woman 
distinguished alike for her great abilities and cruelty. By 
her order, her son was deposed, and murdered in a barbar- 
ous manner. After this she governed alone for five years ; 
but an insurrection being; excited against her, she was in 
her turn deposed, and ^Necipho rus the great treasurer, pro- 
claimed emperor. The unfortunate Irene was banished to 
the Isle of Lesbos, where, it is said, she was obliged to 
gain a scanty subsistance by the labor of her hands, a mel- 
ancholy example of blasted ambition. 

17. Neciphorus did not long enjoy the honor to which 
he was raised; having undertaken an expedition against 
the Bulgarians, he was defeated and slain in battle. During 
the short reigns of Stauracius and Michael, the Bulgarians 
in their turn, invaded the empire and carried their devasta- 
tions so far as even to threaten the capital itself. Such was 
the situation of things, when Leo, the Armenian, ascend- 
ed the throne. Leo being a, man of great military abilities, 



324 MODERN GREECE. 

immediately marched against the Bulgarians, over whom 
he gained several decisive victories, and after a prosperous 
reign of seven years, he was assassinated by the partisans 
of Michael, the commander of the guards, who was raised 
from the prison, (where he had been confined on a charge 
of rebellion,) to the throne. During the reign of this weak 
and profligate prince, the empire suffered the loss of the 
islands of Crete and Sicily, which were conquered by the 
Mussulmen ; and during the reign of Theophilos, his suc- 
cessor, the eastern Saracens took and destroyed the flour- 
ishing city of Amorium, in Asia Minor, and led 30,000 of 
its inhabitants as captives into Persia. 

18. Theophilus was succeeded by his son Michael III., 
a man of the most dissolute character and abandoned hab- 
its. It was during the reign of this emperor, that the first 
separation of the Greek and Latin church took place. (See 
Christian church.) After a reign of twenty-five years, he 
was assassinated in a state of intoxication, and Basil the 
Macedonian, his colleague, a man of humble birth, was 
acknowledged as sole emperor, A. D. 867. Through the 
vigilance and activity of Basil, the disorders of the pre- 
ceding reign, were soon removed, and peace restored to 
every department of the state. He waged successful war 
against the Saracens, and after a successful reign of nine- 
teen years, he died from an accident which he received in 
the chase, A. D. 886. 

19. Under the succeeding emperors, until the reign of 
Neciphorus Phocas, who ascended the throne in 963, the 
Greek empire had greatly fallen from its former splendor. 
Neciphorus by his great military talents, for a short period, 
supported its declining glory. Having recovered the island 
of Crete, he next invaded Asia, and wrested from the Sar- 
acens several towns and provinces, which he united to the 
empire. By his avarice and exactions, he at length alien- 
ated the affection of his subjects ; a conspiracy having been 
formed against him, he was assassinated, and John Zem~ 
isces, one of the chief conspirators, was raised to the 
throne. 

20. This emperor, although he wore the crown of his 
murdered sovereign, directed the affairs of government with 
an able hand. He effectually repelled the irruption of the 
Russians, whom he defeated in several sanguinary battles, 
and finally compelled them to retire to their own domin- 
ions. He was equally successful in his war against the 
Saracens, who, availing themselves of his absences, had 



MODERN GREECE. 325 

conquered several places in Asia. His prosperous career, 
however, was cut short by the treachery of his chief min- 
ister, who caused him to be poisoned, in the 6th year of his 
reign. 

21. After his death, Basil II and Constanfine VIII., 
reigned jointly together, but the exercise of the supreme 
authority was left entirely to the former. He was posses- 
sed of a military and enierprising spirit; he reduced Bul- 
garia, and considerably extended the limits of the empire 
hi the East. He was preparing for an expedition against the 
Saracens of Sicily, when he died, in the 68th year of his 
age, and 51st of his reign, A. D. 1025. During the fifty 
succeeding years, fifteen different emperors filled the throne 
in succession; but their reigns are not distinguished for 
any remarkable transaction. At the time of the Crusades, 
Constantinople was taken by the French and Venetians, 
and held by them for a period of near sixty years, during 
which time the Greek emperors reigned at Nice. In 1261, 
in the reign of Michael Paldbologus, Constantinople was 
again recovered from the conquerors. 

22. The most distinguished emperors after this period, 
were Jllexius Commenus, an able and political sovereign, 
and his son, equally distinguished for his viriues and abil- 
ity. In the year 1453, during the reign of Constanfine 
Palseologus, Constantinople was besieged and taken by 
the Turks, under Mahomet II. (See Turkey.) Since 
that eventful period, until within a few years, the unhappy 
Greeks groaned under the weight of Turkish despotism. 
In 1820, animated by a spirit of freedom, they commenced 
an open revolt; and after the war had continued for several 
years, several of the European powers interposed in their 
behalf. On the 20th of October, 1828, the combined fleets 
of England, France, and Russia, completely destroyed the 
Turkish naval force in the batde of Navarino, — an event 
which secured the independence of Greece. The govern- 
ment chosen for the country by the great European pow- 
ers, is a limited monarchy, and the present sovereign is 
Otlio, the son of Louis Charles of Bavaria, who bears the 
title of king of Greece. 



AMERICA 



SECTION I. 

The Discovery of the Country ; the Conquest of Mexico 
and Peru ; the Manners and Customs of the Indians, 

1. For several years previous to the discovery of Amer- 
ica, the attention of the Portuguese was directed towards 
finding a passage to the East Indies, by doubling the south- 
ern extremity of Africa, and then taking an easterly course, 
and it was the pursuit of this favorite object, that led to the 
important discovery that followed. The honor of accom- 
plishing an exploit so sublime as that of the discovery of the 
western continent, belongs to Christopher Columbus, a na- 
tive of Genoa. This illustrious man was well qualified by 
nature and education for this arduous undertaking. At the 
age of fourteen, he engaged in a sea-faring life ; he was well 
versed in geometry, astronomy, geography, and naval sci- 
ence ; calm, persevering, and patient under the most trying 
circumstances ; dignified in his deportment ; at all times per- 
fectly master of himself, and capable of eliciting the esteem 
and commanding the obedience of all under his direction. 

2. The spherical figure of the earth, was now generally 
admitted, and its magnitude was estimated with some de- 
gree of accuracy. Columbus reasoning from these facts, 
and from the observations of modern navigators, arrived at 
this very just conclusion, that Europe, Asia, and Africa 
formed but a small portion of the terraqueous globe, and 
that to complete the balance, another continent must neces- 
sarily exist, which he supposed to be united to Asia, and 
might be reached by sailing west from Europe. Pieces of 
wood artificially carved and reeds driven by a westerly 
wind, had been taken up in the ocean, west of the Madeira 



AMERICA. 327 

Islands ; trees, and on one occasion, the bodies of two men 
of strange features, were driven upon the Azores. 

3. Convinced of the truth of his theory, Columbus was 
impatient to test it by experiment. Anxious that his native 
country should participate in the honor that might arise 
from so noble an enterprise, he first solicited the patronage 
of the senate of Genoa ; but to his great mortification, they 
treated his theory as a visionary project. He next applied 
for assistance to the Portuguese, but was again refused. He 
then dispatched his brother Bartholomew, to the court of 
England to solicit the patronage of Htnry VIL; but Bar- 
tholomew having been captured by pirates, did not reach 
England for several years. 

4. In the mean time, Columbus laid his plans before 
Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Spain, who gave 
him a favorable hearing. At length after years of patient 
solicitation, and after surmounting difficulties, under which, 
any other than Columbus would have sunk in despair, he 
obtained a gleam of hope from the royal favor of Isabel/a. 
The queen, fired with- the glory thai must follow from the 
accomplishment of so grand an enterprise, and anxious to 
spread the Chrisiian religion, resolved to lend her assist- 
ance to Columbus. But owing to the low state of her 
finance, in consequence of the long war with the Moors, 
who had just been expelled from Spain, she offered to 
pledge her jewels, in order to complete the preparations 
necessary for the voyage ; from this embarrassment, how- 
ever, she was relieved, by the liberality of two Spanish 
noblemen, who advanced the necessary' sum from their own 
private rae-ans. 

5. On the 17th of April, more than seven years from 
the time of his first application, an armament was fitted out, 
consisting of three small vessels, called the Santa Maria, 
the Pinta, and Nigna, carrying 90 men, with provisions 
for only twelve months,, Columbus, previous to entering 
on the voyage was appointed admiral of all the seas he 
should explore, and governor of all the islands he should 
subdue. 

8. On the 3d of August, in the year 1492, Columbus set 
sail from the port of Palos in Spain; and after touching at 
the Canary islands, wher j he refitted his vessels, he pro- 
ceeded on his voyage, taking a westerly direction into seas 
unknown and unexplored, without a chart to guide his 
course. By the 14th of September, the fleet stood 200 
leagues west from the Canaries. Here it was observed 



828 AMERICA. 

that the magnetic needle in the compass, did not point di- 
rectly to the north star, but varied towards the west. The 
phenomenon, which had never been observed before, ex- 
cited alarm and terror in the breasts of the Spanish sailors. 
They were then in a vast and trackless ocean, nature itself 
seemed to change, and their only guide was about to fail. 

7. Columbus, with his usual presence of mind, gave a 
solution for this phenomenon, which served to dispel the 
fears and silence the murmurs of his companions, although 
it was not satisfactory to himself. Having proceeded on 
his voyage for 30 days more, without any prospect of land, 
the spirit of mutiny began again to manifest itself among 
the sailors, who now agreed among ihemselves to compel 
Columbus by force to return, while the vessels were in a 
condition to keep at sea. Never was there a more trying 
moment for Columbus. To exercise coercive measures, 
on such an occasion, would be a dangerous expedient; to 
reason with men in whose breasts fe'ar had extinguished 
every generous sentiment was useless, to return would blast 
forever his highest expectations. Therefore, as the last ex- 
pedient, he had recourse to exhortations and encourage- 
ment, and so far yielded to their importunities, as to pro- 
pose to abandon the expedition and return for Spain, if 
land should not be discovered within the short space of 
three days. 

8. For some days previous to this, the sounding line had 
reached the bottom, the flocks of birds increased, the air 
was tnoie mild and warm. From all these symptoms, Co- 
lumbus concluded that land was at no great distance ; and 
on the ev< ningof the 11th of October, he ordered the sails 
to be furled and a watch to be set. While standing on the 
forecastle, he beheld a light carried from place to place, and 
shortly after midnight the joyful sound of land, was heard 
from the crew of the Pinta. From this moment until the 
return of day, realized their expectations, no eye was 
closed; all on board were in the deepest suspense and sleep- 
less expectation. But as the morning dawned their doubts 
were expelled, a beautiful island presented itself to their 
view. 

9. The crew of the Pinta immediately broke forth in a 
hymn of thanksgiving to God, in which they were joined 
by those of the o her vessels, in tears of joys and congratu- 
lation. This office of gratitude to heaven, was next fol- 
lowed by an act of retribution to their commander; they 
threw themselves at his feet, with the humblest acknowl- 



AMERICA. 329 

edgments of their rashness and disobedience, and besought 
his forgiveness. As the sun arose, the boats were manned 
and rowed towards the shore, with ihe Spanish colors float- 
ing to the breeze, while at the time martial music rent the 
air. Columbus, richly attired and with a drawn sword in 
his hand, was the first European who set his foot upon the 
new world. His men immediately followed, and falling 
upon their knees, with tears of joy they kissed the ground 
which they had long desired to behold. They next erected 
a crucifix and prostrating themselves before it, they returned 
solemn thanks to God, whose benign hand had guided them 
safe through a thousand dangers, and conducted their voy- 
age to- so happy an issue. They then took solemn posses- 
sion of the country in the name of the sovereigns of Cas- 
tile and Leon. 

10. On the landing of the Spaniards, they found the 
coast covered with a race of people, differing from any that 
they had ever seen before. They were of a dark copper 
color, without clothing or beards, and their hair flowing 
loosely upon their shoulders. The natives were equally 
surprised at the appearance of the Spaniards, whom they 
considered as the children of the sun, their idol ; they re- 
garded the ships as a species of animals, with eyes of light- 
ning and voices of thunder. 

11. The first land discovered by Columbus, was one of the 
Bahama islands, called by him St. Salvador, it is also dis- 
tinguished by the name of Cat Inland. He afterwards 
visited Cuba and Hayli or St. Domingo % \o which he gave 
the name of Hispaniola, and on which he left some of his 
men foi the purpose of forming a colony. As Columbus 
had reached these islands by a western passage, and believ- 
ing not far distant from the unexplored reigion of India, 
they were denominated the West Indies, and the aborigines 
of the country were designated by the appellation of Indi- 
ans, a name which they retain to the present time. After 
some time spent in exploring the country, and in amicable 
traffic with the natives, and having collected a quantity of 
gold, Columbus set sail on his return for Spain. 

12. During the voyage, he was overtaken by a violent 
storm, which continued for fifteen days, and exposed the 
already shattered vessels to the most imminent danger. 
While the storm continued, Columbus with great presence 
of mind, enclosed in a cake of wax, a short account of the 
voyage and discovery, and placing it in a cask he commit- 
ted it to the sea, with the hope that if he should perish, it 
14* 



330 AMERICA. 

might fall into the hands of some navigator or be cast 
ashore, and thus the knowledge of his discovery might be 
preserved to the world. But the storm fortunately abated 
and Columbus arrived safely in the port of Palos, from 
which he had sailed about seven months before. He was 
received with the loudest acclamations by the people, who 
gazed with astonishment on the riches and the various 
curiosities which he brought with him from the new world ; 
at Barcelona he met with a gracious reception from Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella. 

13. Columbus in his third voyage to the new world, dis- 
covered the continent, and landed in several places in the 
northern part of South America. But his success and the 
great marks of favor shown him by his sovereign, did not 
fail to excite envy and jealousy against him, in the court of 
Spain. In consequence of various false and groundless 
charges, he was deprived of the government of Uispaniola, 
and sent home in chains. The captain of the vessel in 
which he returned, through respect to his illustrious captive, 
offered to release him from his fetters. To whom Columbus 
replied : " No, 1 wear these chains in consequence of an 
order from their majesties the rulers of Spain. They will 
find me as obedient in this as in every other injunciion. 
By their command I have been confined and their command 
alone shall set me at liberty." 

14. On his return to Spain, a prisoner and in chains, the 
voice of indignation was heard from men of every rank ; 
even Ferdinand himself for a season, seemed to feel the 
blush of shame ; he ordered the venerable Columbus to be 
set at liberty ; but ungratefully retained him in Spain, until 
he appointed another person governor of Hispaniola. Such 
was the reward that the great discoverer of the western 
continent received, for having devised and accomplished 
one of the noblest enterprises that ever entered into the 
mind of man. Columbus never forgot this unjust and 
shameful treatment; and during the remainder of his life, 
he carried about him the fetters in which he had been 
bound, as a memorial of the ingratitude he had received, 
and gave orders that they should be buried with him in his 
grave. 

15. But his spirit of enterprise was not subdued. Bent 
on finding a passage to India by the west, which had been 
the leading object of his discovery, he undertook a fourth 
voyage to the new world; during which, he examined the 
coast of Darien ; but suffered shipwreck on the isle of 



AMERICA. 331 

Jamaica. After having endured a variety of sufferings and 
calamities, occasioned by the mutiny of his men, scarcity 
of provisions, and sickness, he again reach Spain. Shortly 
after his return, he died at Valadolia, in the 70th year of 
his age. His funeral, at the royal expense, was grand and 
imposing; on his tomb was placed the following inscrip- 
tion: "To Castile and Leon, Columbus has given a new 
world." 

16. Though the world is indebted to Columbus for the dis- 
covery of the Western continent, still the honor of associat- 
ing his name with the country he discovered, has unjustly 
been wrested from him. Americus Vesputius, a naiive of 
Florence, who accompanied Ojeda on a voyage to the new 
world in 1499, discovered a part of South America the year 
after the continent had been visited by Columbus. Jlmeri- 
cus, on his return to Spain, published an account of his voy- 
age, and claimed the honor of having been the first discoverer 
of the main land ; and the continent from him gradually 
received the name of America. 

17. The achievement of Columbus, who first crossed 
the expanse of the Atlantic, and visted regions hitherto un- 
known, excited throughout Europe a lively spirit of enter- 
prize and adventure. In 1519, Magellan, a Portuguese 
navigator in the service of Spain, sailed to the western con- 
tinent, passed the straits in the southern part of South 
America, which now bear his name, and was the first who 
entered that vast ocean called by him the Pacific, from the 
calmness of its waters. Magellan lost his life in one of 
the Philippine islands, yet his officers proceeded on their 
voyage, and for the first time accomplished the circumnav- 
igation of the globe. 

18. John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, under a commis- 
sion from Henry VII. of England, accompanied by his son 
Sebastian, sailed on a voyage of discovery in 1497, and 
discovered the continent of North America, a year before 
the main land of South America had been reached by Co- 
lumbus. On the 20th of November, 1397, Vasco de Gama, 
employed by the king of Portugal, for the first time doubled 
the Cape of Good Hope, and in the following May, arrived 
at Calicut on the coast of Malabar. By this he effected 
what had been the leading object of Columbus in all his 
enterprises, and what, in the preceding age, had been the 
great object of investigation, namely, to find a more expe- 
ditious and convenient mode of passage to the East Indies, 
than through Egypt 



332 AMERICA. 

19. Cabot having proceeded on his voyage to the north 
in quest of a passage to India, without being able to effect 
his object, returned and sailed along the coast as far as Flor- 
ida, erected crosses at various points as he passed, and took 
possession of the country in the name of the rrown of Eng- 
land. This was the foundation of the English claim to 
North America. 

20. Several years had now elapsed since the discovery 
of America by Columbus, and no permanent settlement was 
yet made upon the continent. At an early period after the 
arrival of the Spaniards, they had been apprised of the 
existance of the rich and powerful empire of Mexico. 
The governor of Cuba having conceived the design of sub- 
jugating it to the power of Spain, fitted out a small fleet 
for that purpose, and placed it under the command of Fer- 
nando Cortez. On the 10th of January, 1519, Cortez 
soiled from Cuba with eleven small vessels, having on board 
600 men, 16 horses, 6 pieces of artillery, and a few mus- 
kets. Having reached the continent, he caused himself to 
be proclaimed independent of the governor of Cuba, (who 
had already revoked the commission intrusted to him,) and 
accountable to none but the monarch of Spain. 

21. He then laid the foundation of the colony of Vera 
Cruz, and the better to inspire his troops in their arduous 
undertaking, by cutting off all hope of returning, he caused 
the vessels to be burnt on the coast. Cortez now proceed- 
ed rapidly on his march to the capital of the Mexican em- 
pire, which he finally reached after encountering innumer- 
able difficulties. He entered the city under the assumed 
quality of ambassador of the Spanish monarch, and was 
cordially received by the emperor Montezuma, who as- 
signed him one of the royal palaces, as a place of residence 
during his stay. 

22. In the mean time, an attack was made upon the 
Spanish colony at Vera Cruz, by one of the Mexican gen- 
erals. Cortez on receiving intelligence of this transaction, 
taking with him a small band of resolute men, went to the 
palace of the emperor, seized the person of Montezuma, 
arid compelled him to return with him to his residence. 
The Mexicans, roused by this breach of hospitality, .flew 
to arms, and after many sanguinary contests, the Spaniards 
*yere compelled to leave the capital. On one occasion, as 
Montezuma appeared on the rampart, in order to quell a 
sedition among the citizens, the unhappy monarch was kil- 



AMERICA. 333 

led by a stone thrown by one of the assailants ; he was im- 
mediately succeeded hy his brother Quetlavaca. 

23. But no reverse of fortune could intimidate the cour- 
age, or abate the ardor of the enterprising Cortez. Having 
obtained the assistance of a nation of Indians, who were 
tributary to the sovereign of Mexico, and being reinforced 
by a body of Spaniards, he again presented himself before 
the city, which was accordingly taken after a siege of 17 
days. Guatimozin, who had succeeded Quetlavaca, en- 
deavored to escape with his family and court, but was in- 
tercepted and taken prisoner before he could effect his de- 
sign. 

24. The Spaniards, who were greatly disappointed in the 
amount of treasure they expected to find in the city, in or- 
der to discover them, resolved to put the unfortunate mon- 
arch and his chief minister to the rack. The prince bore 
his sufferings with incredible constancy, and hearing his 
minister complain, he turned to him and said : " And my- 
self, I am on a bed of roses." He was liberated from the 
hands of the soldiery through the influence of Cortez, but 
was afterwards put to death on a charge of treason and 
conspiracy, during the year 1523. Thus was the great 
empire of Mexico overthrown, and reduced to a Spanish 
province by a few bold and daring adventurers. 

25. Shortly after the conquest of Mexico by Cortez, a 
similar expedition was undertaken against the rich and pow- 
erful empire of Peru, by Francis Pizarro, who sailed 
from Panama in 1525, and began to explore the shores of 
the Pacific. His enterprise was for some time impeded by a 
variety of causes; but in 1531, having obtained frum Charles 
V. of Spain, a commission as governor of the country, and 
a small force to enable him to conquer it, he continued his 
adventures, and advanced into the very heart of Peru, then 
an extensive empire, governed by sovereigns styled Incas. 

26. The country at that time was divided Into two hos- 
tile parties, by the two sons of the late monarch, who dis- 
puted the succession to the throne. Atabalipa, the young- 
er, was finally successful, having defeated his brother in 
battle and taken him prisoner, he ordered him to be put to 
death. Both princes had previously endeavored to gain 
the assistance of the strangers, a circumstance which Piz- 
arro did not fail to render subservient to his views. March- 
ing to meet Jltabalipa under the cover of friendship, he 
suddenly attacked the army of the unsuspecting monarch ; 
four thousand of the Peruvians were slain, and Atabalipa 



334 AMERICA. 

himself, fell into the hands of the Spaniards. The unhap- 
py monarch, in order to procure his release, engaged to fill 
the room in which he was confined, measuring 22 feet in 
length, and 17 in breadth, with vessels of gold and silver, 
as high as he could reach. The contract was fulfilled on 
the part of the Peruvian sovereign, yet he did not obtain 
his liberty, but being brought to trial on a charge of treason, 
and as the murderer of his brother and the usurper of his 
crown, he was put to death. 

27. The entire country now submitted to the conquer- 
ors, who for the better security, laid the foundation of the 
city of Lima, short distance from the sea. The Peruvian 
monarchy being thus overthrown, discord began to prevail 
among the conquerors, and violent contentions ensued. Al- 
magro, the rival of Pizarro, was taken prisoner, condemn- 
ed and executed, and shortly afterwards Pizarro himself, 
was assassinated. After his death, the civil feuds continued 
until the year 1548, when the disasters which had so long 
desolated Peru, were terminated, and the country reduced 
to a Spanish province, by the wise and prudent measures 
of Pedro de la Gasca, who had been appointed governor. 

28. At the time of the invasion of the Spaniards, the 
Mexicans and Peruvians had made considerable advances 
towards civilization, Their many magnificent palaces, 
temples, and pyramids, prove that they carried architecture 
to a high degree of perfection. They understood the arts 
of sculpture, mining and working the precious metals; agri- 
culture was in a high state of advancement; they had a 
regular system of government, and a code of civil and reli- 
gious laws. They worshipped the sun as the supreme 
deity ; but the religion of the Peruvians, possessed lew of 
those sanguinary traits that characterized the Mexicans, 
who offered human victims in sacrifice. In the other parts 
of America, the natives had made but little progress in civ- 
ilization. The following are a few of the characteristics 
that distinguish the Indians of JNorth America, except the 
empire of Mexico. 

29. In person, the Indians were tall, straight, and well 
proportioned. Their complexion was of red, or copper 
color; their eyes were dark, their hair black, long and 
course. They are quick of apprehension, and not wanting 
in genius. When provoked to anger, they are sullen and 
reserved ; but when determined on revenge, no danger can 
deter them, or absence cool their resentment. When cap- 



AMERICA. 335 

tured by an enemy, they never ask for life, or betray the 
least signs of fear. 

30. They had no books at the time they were first visit- 
ed, or any written literature, except rude hieroglyphics. 
Education among them, was confined to the arts of war, 
hunting, and fishing. Their language was rude, but sono- 
rous, metaphorical and energetic. Their aris and manu- 
factures, were confined chiefly to the construction of the 
wigwam, bows and arrows, ornaments of various kinds, 
stone hatchets, and weaving a kind of coarse mat from bark 
or hemp. Their agriculture was very limited, and the ar- 
ticles they cultivated consisted of corn, beans, peas, pota- 
toes, melons, &c. Their skill in medicine was confined 
to a few simple prescriptions, but the diseases to which 
they were subject, were few compared with those which 
prevail in civiized society. 

31. The employments of the men were principally hunt- 
ing, fishing, and war; the women dressed the food, tilled 
the fields; and performed nearly all the drudgery, besides 
attending to her domestic concerns. Their domestic uten- 
sils consisted of a hatchet ot stone, and a few shells which 
they used as knives. With these they scalped their ene- 
mies, dressed their game, &c. Money among the Indians 
was called Wampum, and consisted of small beads wrought 
from shells. War was the favorite employment of the 
aborigines of North America. When they fought in the 
open plain, they rushed to the attack with the utmost fury, 
at the same time uttering the frightful war-whoop. If peace 
was concluded, the chiefs ratified the treaty by smoking in 
succession, the Calumet or pipe of peace. 

32. Their government was an absolute monarchy ; the 
will of the chief being regarded as the law, although in 
matters of moment, he consulted his counsellors, but his 
own decision was final. The religion of the naiives con- 
sisted of traditions, mingled wiih many superstitions. Like 
the Hindoos and some of the ancient nations, they believed 
in the existence of two gods ; the one good, who was su- 
perior, and whom they styled the Great Spirit ; and the 
other evil, who was thought to be inferior in power. They 
worshipped them both, and of both they made images of 
stone, to which they paid religious homage. They also 
entertained some confused ideas of future rewards and pun- 
ishments. Their chief mode of worship, was to sing and 
dance around a large fire, to which they added prayer, and 



336 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

sometimes they offered in sacrifice a kind of sweet-scented 
powder, blood and tobacco. 

33. Marriage among them was in general, a temporary- 
contract; the men chose their wives agreeably to their fan- 
cy, and could put them away at pleasure ; but generally 
the contracts were observed with much fidelity. Polyga- 
my was prevalent among them. Their treatment of their 
wives was cruel and oppressive; they were considered as 
slaves and treated as such. The rights of burial among 
Indians, differed but little throughout the continent. They 
generally made an opening in the ground, at the bottom of 
which, the corpse, wrapped in skins or mats, was deposit- 
ed. The arms and ornaments of the deceased were buried 
with them, and a mound of earth raised over the grave. 

34. The origin of Indians inhabiting the country on the 
arrival of the Europeans, has long been a subject of inves- 
tigation, and as yet, the matter remains undecided. The 
best supported opinion is, that at some unknown period, 
they emigrated from the north eastern part of Asia, to the 
northern coast of North America. This may be probable, 
as Behring Strait separating the two continents, is only 
about fony miles wide, a much shorter distance than the 
Indians are known to sail in their canoes ; this strait is fre- 
quently frozen over, hence they may have crossed on the 
ice. 



SECTION II. 

Settlement of Virginia and New York. 

1. The French were among the first adventurers in the 
western continent. As early as the year 1504, they. had 
visited the banks of New Foundland, and in 1524, Francis 
I. of France, willing to share with his neighbors a portion 
of the new world, commissioned Vtrrazano on a voyage 
of discovery. This navigator explored a great part of 
the shores of North America. About ten years after this, 
James Cartier, under a similar commission from the French 
king, sailed to the new world, entered the Gulph of St. 
Laurence and took possession of the country in the name of 
his sovereign, and called it New France ; this name was 
subsequently changed to that of Canada. 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 337 

2. In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh, under a commission 
from Queen Elizabeth of England, arrived in America, 
entered Pamlico Sound, and proceeding to Roanoke Island, 
near the mouth of Albermarle Sound, he took possession 
the country for the crown of England. On his return, lie 
gave so flattering an account of the beauty and fertility of 
the country, that Elizabeth bestowed on it the name of Vir- 
ginia, as a memorial that it had been discovered during the 
reign of a virgin queen. Several attempts to f rm a settle- 
ment in Virginia were made by Sir Walter Raleigh ; he 
dispatched several small vessels under the command of 
Richard Granville, carrying 180 adventurers, who were 
lauded on the Isle of Roanoke. But the colonists, deluded 
by the prospect of rinding mines of the precious metals, 
neglected the cultivation of the soil ; they were in conse- 
quence reduced to the utmost distress by famine ; many of 
their number returned to England with Sir Francis Drake, 
while others perished with disease, or were destro) ed by 
the natives. 

3. This unsuccessful attempt, withdrew for some time 
the attention of the English from these distant regions. In 
1602, however, Bartholomew Gosn<>ld sailed from Eng- 
land, and discovered Cape Cod, which name he gave it. on 
account of the number of Codfish caught near it. From 
this period we find that the spirit of adventure again revived. 
In- 1606, James I. of England, granted letters patent, an 
exclusive right or privilege, to the London and Plymouth 
companies, by which they were authorized to possess and 
occupy all the territory lying between the 34th and 45th 
degrees of north latitude, which at that time was included 
under the common name of Virginia. To the former com- 
pany was assigned the section of country included between 
the 41st and 34th degree of south latitude, called South Vir- 
ginia ; and to the latter, that part of the territory lying to 
the north, called North Virginia. 

4. Under this patent, the London company in 1607, sent 
out a vessel under the command of Captain Newport, car- 
rying 105 adventurers. After a tedious voyage of four 
months, they arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, 
and sailed some distance up the Powhatan, now called the 
James R ver, where they built a fort and laid the founda- 
tion of a town, which in honor of their king they called 
Jamestown. The government of the colony was framed 
by the London company, and was administered by a coun- 



838 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

cil of seven persons, with a president chosen from among 
their own number. 

5. The name of the first president was Wingjield ; but 
the most distinguished person in the council was the cele- 
brated Captain John Smith, who, from the active part 
which he took in the transactions of the new settlement, 
has been styled /aMer of the colony. The life and actions 
of this extraordinary man resemble the deeds of a hero of 
romance. In the early part of his life, he had the com- 
mand of a body of cavalry in the Austrian army, and dur- 
ing a contest with the Turks he was taken prisoner, and 
sent as a slave to Constantinople, from which he afterwards 
obtained his release and returned to England. His roman- 
tic and enterprising spirit, led him to engage in an expedi- 
tion to the new world, and by his superior abilities, the 
colony was repeatedly rescued from the brink of ruin. 

6. Unfortunately for the colonists, they were soon involv- 
ed in hostilities with the natives, whose antipathy to the 
English was occasioned by the cruel treatment, they had pre- 
viously experienced from Sir Richard Granville, who burnt 
an entire Indian village and distroyed their corn, in retalia- 
tion for their stealing a silver cup. The singular adventures 
of Captain Smith, form a conspicuous portion of the his- 
tory of the colony. On one occasion, while exploring the 
country, he was taken prisoner by a band of 200 Indians ; 
but charmed, however, with his valor and the various arts 
which used to astonish or please them, they released him 
from captivity. After this he was again taken by a party 
of 300, who led him in triumph to Powhatan their king. 
The sentence of death was immediately pronounced against 
him, and he was conducted to the place of execution. His 
head was laid upon a stone, and the savages with uplifted 
clubs were about to dispatch their victim, when Pocahon- 
tas, the favorite daughter of Powhatan, threw herself be- 
tween the prisoner and the executioners, and by her tears 
and entreaties prevailed on her father to recall the sentence. 
Her prayers were heard and Smith was set at liberty. 

7. In 1609, Powhatan had concerted measures for the 
destruction of the colony; but Pocahontas, who had al- 
ways manifested a friendly disposition towards the English, 
visited Jamestown alone, on a dark and stormy night, and 
disclosed to Captain Smith, the designs of her lather; the 
colony was, by this means, saved from destruction. Poca- 
hontas, during a subsequent visit to Jamestown, was there 
detained, and her father, who was devotedly attached to his 



♦ AMERICAN COLONIES. 339 

daughter, concluded a treaty with the English on their own 
terms. Pocahontas was afterwards married, with the con- 
sent of her father, to a Mr. Ralfe, a young planter of a res- 
pectable family. After their nuptials, which were celebrated 
with great pomp, Ralle and the princess sailed for England, 
where she was instructed in the Christian religion and pub- 
lically baptized. She died at Gravesend, in the 22d year 
of her age, leaving one son from whom are descended some 
of the most respectable iamilies of Virginia. 

8. During the first year the colonists suffered severely 
from want of provisions and from sickness, which in a few 
months carried off half their number; but by the arrival 
of new adventurers, the population of the colony at the 
close of the year amounted to about 200 persons. During 
the year 1609, Captain Smith, in consequence of an in- 
jury he received by the accidental explosion of gunpowder, 
w r as obliged to return to England for medical aid. His ab- 
sence was a severe loss to the colony. In consequence of 
a waste of provisions, a most distressing famine followed; 
the period was long known by the name of the starving 
times. So dreadful was its effect, that in the space of six 
months, their number was reduced from nearly 500 to 60. 
The small remnant that survived, were so disheartened by 
these disasters that they resolved to abandon the settlement 
and return to England. From this they were prevented by 
the timely arrival of Lord Delaware, who had been ap- 
pointed governor, with 150 men and a large supply of pro- 
visions. Through his exertions they were induced to re- 
main, and their number being increased by new arrivals, 
the condition of the colony soon began to assume a pros- 
perous appearance. 

9. The planters were men generally destitute of families, 
and had emigrated with a prospect of obtaining wealth, and 
expected eventually to return to their native country. But 
with a view of attaching them to the new settlement, and 
of rendering their residence permanent in the colony, an 
expedient was devised of supplying them with wives. Ac- 
cordingly, a number of unmarried females were sent over 
from England, to be sold to such as were desirous to pur- 
chase. The price of a wife was at first 100 pounds of to- 
bacco ; but as the number diminished, it was raised to 150 
pounds ; the price of tobacco at the time was three shillings 
a pound. 

10. The year 1620, is rendered memorable for the in- 
troduction of negro slavery into America. A Dutch vessel 



340 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

from the coast of Guinea, sailed up the James river, having 
on board about 20 negroes, who were sold as slaves to the 
planters of Virginia. 

The colony had enjoyed, for some time, a great degree 
of prosperity. In 1623, however, it experienced a stroke 
that nearly proved fatal to its existance. Powhatan died 
in 1618, and was succeeded by his son, who did not inherit 
the friendly disposition of his father towards the English. 
A deliberate plan for the annihilation of the colony at one 
blow was concerted, and succeeded to a fearful extent. On 
the 22d of March, while the colonists were engaged in their 
usual occupations, the Indians fell upon them, sparing 
neither age nor sex, and in one fatal hour 347 persons fell 
victims to their cruelty. 

11. This treachery of the Indians was followed by a war 
of extermination ; during which the colonists indulged in 
acts of atrocity, little inferior to those by which they had 
been visited. They fell upon the Indians at. the approach 
of harvest, when they knew the attack would prove most 
fatal, destroyed their crops of corn, and in their fury, mur- 
dered all who came in their way, or drove them into the 
forest, where so many perished with hunger, that some of 
the tribes nearest to the colony were totally extirpated. 

12 In 1624, the London Company, which had been so 
active in establishing a settlement in Virginia, was dissolved 
by an arbitrary act of king James I., who invested the gov- 
ernment of the colony in the crown, and appointed a gov- 
ernor with a council of 12 persons to aid hjm in the ad- 
ministration. The prosperity of the colony was subse- 
quently retarded, during the arbitrary administration of Sir 
John Harvey ; but in 1639, Sir William Burkley, a man 
of superior abilities, was appointed governor, when it again 
began to flourish. During the revolution in England, which 
terminated in the execution of Charles, the colonists pre- 
served their loyalty to the king. In 1651, the common- 
wealth under Cromwell, took vigorous measures for the re- 
duction of the colony. Burkley made a spirited resistance; 
but being obliged to yield to a superior force, he retire from 
public life, and Mathews was appointed governor by Crom- 
well. 

13. On the death of Mathews, the spirit of opposition 
was again manifested; the colonists threw off their allegi- 
ance to the commonwealth, recalled Burkley from his re- 
tirement, erected the royal standard and proclaimed Charles 
II., son of the late king, as their lawful sovereign. For° 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 341 

tunately for the colonists, the restoration of Charles, which 
shortly afterwards took place, preserved them from ihe 
chastisement to which, their previous declaration in his favor 
had exposed them. In 1676, towards the close of Burk- 
ley's administration, the restriction imposed on trade by the 
kin?, occasioned considerable discontent in the colony, and 
finally gave rise to an insurrection known by the name of 
Bacon's Rebellion, so called from the name of its leader. 
During the progress of this unfortunate insurrection, the 
country was given up to pdlage, Jamestown was burnt and 
all the horrors of civil war continued to rage, until they 
were terminated by the death of Bacon. 

14. The territory now comprising the middle states of 
the Union, was originally settled by the Dutch and Swedes. 
In 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the service of 
the East India Company of Holland, on a voyage in search 
of a north-west passage to India, touched at Long Island, 
and sailed up the river which now bears his name. The 
right of discovery being thus acquired, and the favorable 
report of the country, induced a company of Dutch adven- 
turers to attempt a settlement on the Hudson river about the 
year 1613. The built a fort near the present site of Albany, 
called Fort Orange, and another with some few trading 
houses on Manhattan Island, where the city of New York 
now stands, and styled the later settlement, New Amster- 
dam* while the whole country was called New Nether- 
lands. 

15. The Swedes had already made a settlement on the 
Delaware river, and held possession of the territory until 
its final subjugation by the Dutch colonists of New Neth- 
erlands, under their enterprising governor Stuy vesant. The 
extension of the New England settlements, occasioned a 
series of disputes and contests with their neighbors in New 
Netherlands. In 1664, Charles II., who had been restored 
to the throne of his father, forgetful of the friends who had 
given him a shelter during his exile, sought every pretext 
for a dispute with Holland. Among other things, he as- 
serted a claim to the colony possessed by that country in 
America, and accordingly conveyed it to his brother, the 
duke of York. The duke made immediate preparations 
for carrying the king's grant into effect, and for that pur- 
pose Colonel Nichols was sent out with a fleet, having on 
board a considerable force. After touching at Boston, he 
sailed for New Amsterdam, and anchoring before the place 



342 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

he demanded its surrender. Stuyvesant, the governor, after 
some opposition was obliged to yield to the English ; and 
the whole territory thus became subject to the British 
crown, and the country, in honor of the duke, was called 
New York. 



SECTION III. 

New England Settlements. 

1. In 1607, about the same time that the colony in Vir- 
ginia laid the foundation of Jamestown, a settlement was 
commenced on the Kenebec river, under the direction of 
the Plymouth company ; but owing to successive misfor- 
tunes, the settlement was abandoned for the present. In 
1614, the country was again visited by captain Smith, so 
celebrated in the history of Virginia, who examined the 
coast from the Penobscot river to Cape Cod, and on his 
return prepared a map of the country, to which he gave the 
name of New England. 

2. In 1620, a patent was granted' by king James I., to 
Ferdinando Gorges and others, called the Council of Ply- 
mouth, for the purpose of settling a colony in New Eng- 
land. Their patent included all the territory between the 
40th and 48th degrees of north latitude. During the same 
year in which the patent was obtained, the first permanent 
settlement in New England was commenced at Plymouth, 
by a body of Puritans, also known by the name of Brown- 
ists, from the name of the founder of their sect. 

3. The Puritans, who had suffered continual persecution 
in England, on account of their dissent from the tenets of 
the established church, had taken refuge in Holland, under 
the charge of their minister, Mr. John Robison ; but not 
finding their new residence agreeable from various causes, 
they resolved to seek an asylum from oppression by re- 
moving to the wilds of America. After having experienced 
many delays and disappointments, a patent was obtained 
under the seal of the London Company, assigning to them 
a tract of land within the limits of the Virginia charter. 

4. On the morning of the 22d of July, 1620, Mr. Rob- 
ison, their minister, kneeling in prayer on the sea shore at 
Belfthaven, Consecrated the embareation of the Piigrime. 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 343 

They touched at Southampton in England, from which 
place they sailed on the 5th of August ; but before proceed- 
ing far i hey were obliged to return in order to repair the 
smaller of their vessels, called the Speedwell, which they 
were finally compelled to abandon, and to prosecute their 
voyage in the Mayflower. At length, on the 6th of Sep- 
tember, they sailed from Plymouth in England for the 
Hudson river; but by the treachery of the captain, who is 
supposed to have been bribed by the Dutch, they were car- 
ried much further to the north, and after a stormy passage 
they came in sight of Cape Cod. 

5. After some weeks spent in searching for a suitable 
place to land, during which they were exposed to incred- 
ible sufferings from the inclemency of the season, the May- 
flower was safely moored in a beautiful harbor, to which, 
in grateful remembrance of the last port they left in Eng- 
land, they gave the name of Plymouth. On the morning 
of the 20th of December, 1620, after imploring the divine 
assistance, the Pilgrims, to the number of 10 i, landed upon 
the rock of Plymouth. The spot on which their first steps 
rested, is still held in deep veneration by their descendants, 
and the day of their landing is yet celebrated with great en- 
thusiasm. 

6. Though the Pilgrims had succeeded in landing, their 
sufferings and distress were only about to commence. After 
a long and tedious voyage, they found themselves cast upon 
an unknown and hostile coast: exposed to all the rigors of 
a New England winter, without a roof to shelter them from 
the storm. Their supply of provisions was limited, and to 
fill up the measure of their sufferings, they were visited by 
a distressing sickness. By these united calamities, in three 
months after their landing, they were reduced to near one- 
half of their original number. John Carver, the first gov- 
ernor, died in March, and William Bradford was chosen 
to succeed him. The election of the governor took place 
annually, and at first he had but one assistant, the number 
was afterwards increased to five, and at length to seven. 

7. With a desire to conform to the simplicity of the 
apostolic time, the Pilgrims at first held all their property 
in common. This was one of the causes of scarcity that 
for some time prevailed in the country. In the spring of 
1623, each family was allowed a piece of ground for its 
cultivation, and after the harvest of that year, no general 
want of provisions was experienced. For the defense of 
the colony against the hostilities of the natives, a military 



344 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

organization was formed, and Captain Miles Standish, a 
man of considerable courage, was appointed to the com- 
mand. In March. 1621, they received a friendly visit from 
Samoset, the chief of the Wampanoags, who gave them a 
cordial welcome, and in the name of his tribe allowed them 
to retain possession of the soil which they occupied, since 
there was not one of the original possessors then living to 
claim it. 

8. From him they obtained important information res- 
pecting the country, and- learned that a short time previous 
to their arrival, a dreadful pestilence had carried off almost 
all the Indians in the vicinity. In the same month, Mas- 
sasoit, the most powerful chief in that region, and from 
whom the name of Massachusetts is derived, paid a visit to 
the colony and entered into a league of friendship with the 
settlers, which was strictly observed for upwards of fifty 
years. 

9. The colony increased but slowly, and at the end of 
ten years the population did not exceed 300. In 1628, the 
colony of Massachusetts Bay was commenced by a com- 
pany of adventurers under John Endicott, who formed a 
settlement. at Naumkeag, to which he gave the scripture 
name of Sal°,m. It might readily be supposed, that the 
men who had bled under the lash of persecution for their 
religious opinions, would have learned to respect these 
opinions in others. While we commend, that noble spirit 
which- enabled them to quit their native soil and brave a 
thousand dangers in a hostile land, in order that they might 
enjoy the unrestrained exercise of their religious principles, 
we cannot refrain from disavowing that spirit of intolerance 
which they exercised among themselves. 

10. Some of the colonists retained a high veneration for 
the ritual of the church of England, and refusing to con- 
form to the colonial establishment, they assembled to a 
separate place of worship. Endicott called before him two 
of the principal offenders and sentenced them to banish- 
ment; they were accordingly sent home by the first vessel 
returning to England. In 1630, another company of ad- 
venturers, over 1500 in number, under John Winthrop< 
who was appointed governor, arrived in Massachusetts and 
commenced the settlement of Charlestown, Boston and 
other places in that vicinity. At the first general court held 
at Charlestown, a law was passed, declaring that none 
should be free or have any share in the government, except 
those who had been received as members of the church. 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 345 

11. In the spring of 1623, the settlement of New Hamp- 
shire was uom.menced at Dover anil Portsmouth, by persons 
sent out it ruler the patronage of Ferdinando Gorges and 
John Mason, to whom the country had been granted. 
These settlements were united to Massachusetts m 1 f»4l , 
and remained a part of that colony until 1678, when New 
Hampshire obtained a separate government. h\ 1635, the 
colony of Connecticut was commenced by a i'ew families, 
with their favorite minister Mr. Hooker, who left Massa- 
chusetts, and after a fatiguing march through the wilderness, 
settled on the west side of the Connecticut river, and laid 
the foundation of Windsor and Wethersfield. 

12. Roger Williams, a minister at Salem, having been 
banished from Massachusetts on account of his religious 
opinions, with a few companions commenced the settlement 
of Rhode Island, on the site where the city of Providence 
now stands, which name they gave to the place, in grateful 
acknowledgment of the divine protection. About two years 
after this, Mr. Cachlington, having been also banished from 
Massachusetts, with 76 others, for holding opinions which 
were deemed erroneous by the colonial establishment, pur- 
chased from the Indians, Jiquetneck, a fertile island in Nar- 
raqanset Bay, and named it Rhode Island, under which 
title the previous settlement by Roger Williams was after- 
wards included. 

13. In 1614, Williams visited England as agent of the 
settlers, and obtained from the British parliament, shortly 
after the commencement of the civil war, a free charter of 
incorporation for Providence and Rhode Island plantations. 
The charter was confirmed and its constitutional powers 
enlarged in the reign of Charles II. By this instrument it 
was ordered, '"that none were to be molested for any dif- 
ference of opinion in matters of religion ;" yet the very 
first assembly, convened under its authority, excluded the 
Roman Catholics from voting at elections, and from every 
office in the government. 

-^14. The friendly intercourse which had for some time 
existed between the colonists and the natives, began gradu- 
ally to be interrupted. The Indians in the vicinity of Mas* 
sachusetts Bay were few and un warlike, and having receiv- 
ed a stipulated compensation for the land from the early set- 
tlers, they evinced no disposition for hostility ; but Con- 
necticut and Rhode Island had to contend with numerous 
and powerful tribes. Among these, the Narragansets and 
Ptquods were the most formidable. The latter having seat 
15 



346 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

a deputation to their neighbors the Narragansets, requested 
them to forget for a season their mutual animosities, and 
co-operate in expelling the common enemy from the coun- 
try : but the former considering this as a favorable oppor- 
tunity for weakening or totally destroying a powerful rival, 
discovered their hostile intentions to the governor of Mas- 
sachusetts, and united in alliance with the colonists against 
them. 

15. The Pequods had pitched their camp in the middle 
of a swamp, near the head of Mystic river, and fortified it 
with palisades; but the colonists, under Captain Mason, 
marched to the place unperceived, and weie about to enter 
the camp through a pass, which, by some unaccountable 
neglect was left open, when the alarm of their approach 
was given by a faithful dog. In a moment the warriors 
flew to arms and prepared to repel the attack ; but in a few 
moments more the wigwams in which the Indians slept 
were enveloped in flames. Dreadful was the carnage that 
now ensued. Aroused from their slumbers by the discharge 
of musketry, the afrigbted Indians rushed in consternation 
from their burning tenements. As they came forth they 
were received by the swords of the enemy; if they attempt- 
ed to escape by scaling the palisades they were met by a 
shower of balls. Many afraid to venture out perished in 
the flames; while others recoiling from the deadly weapons 
of the foe, rushed back into the devouring element and 
shared the fate of their companions. "In a few minutes 
five or six hundred lay gasping in their blood or were silent 
in the arms of death." Those that were captured, above 
the number of two hundred, were either sold as slaves 
abroad or reduced to servitude by the English at home. So 
complete was the extermination, that in a few months the 
nation of Pequods was entirely destroyed, even their very 
name was no longer heard. 

16. The danger to which they were exposed by the en- 
croachments of foreign enemies and domestic hostilities, 
induced the four colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, 
Connecticut and New Haven, to enter into an alliance for 
their mutual defense, under the title of the United Colonies 
of New England, A. D. 1643. This confederation, which 
was regulated by two delegates from each colony, subsisted 
with but little alteration until their charters were annulled 
by Charles II. As many of the early settlers were men of 
talents and education, they gave their earliest attention to 
the interest of teaming anil tt) the establishment of schools. 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 347 

In 1638, a few years after the settlement of Massachusetts, 
Harvard University, the oldest seminary of learning in the 
country, was founded at Cambridge. 

17. Although the colonists possessed many excellent 
traits of character, they were not however without their 
faults. While they claim our admiration for their enter- 
prise, for their love of liberty and attention to the interests of 
education, we are compelled to regard their misguided zeal 
in matters of religion, with mingled feelings of sorrow and 
disapprobation. In 1656, a number of Quakers, flying 
from persecution at home, sought an asylum among their 
Christian brethren in New England; but the novelty of 
their mode of worship greatly offended the ministers of the 
established church; they were accordingly imprisoned and 
sent off by the first opportunity. A law was then passed 
prohibiting the emigration of Quakers to Massachusetts; 
forbidding their return, in case of banishment, under the pen- 
alty of death. In conspquence of these severe proscrip- 
tions, several of these unoffending people were hanged. 

18. In Connecticut the Quakers were treated with little 
less severity. A law was passed against them, subjecting 
the offender to imprisonment at hard labor, and the tongue 
to be pierced through with a red-hot iron. These instances 
of intolerance, which have cast a blot upon the memory of 
our forefathers, are not cited to wound the feelings of their 
descendants, but simply to remind them that it is their duty 
to avoid the repetition of these errors ; that it is incumbent 
on all to discountenance religious intolerance in every form, 
in every age and in every clime ; that the same ascendency 
that then prevailed over the civil authorities, might even 
now plunge society into that unhappy state, which we are 
called to contemplate with so much regret. 

19. After the termination of the Pequod war, the New 
England settlements enjoyed a long continuance of peace, 
during which they grea'ly increased in wealth and popula- 
tion. The treatment, however, which the natives had gener- 
ally received from the early adventurers, had given them great 
reason to regard the Europeans with an eye of jealousy and 
distrust ; and it must be confessed that the colonists, in their 
proceedings with regard to the natives, were often directed 
by principles of cruelty and injustice; as a reference to the 
records of those times will clearly prove. In 1675. the 
peace which long subsisted was interrupted, and the colon- 
ists found themselves involved in a destructive war, with 
Philip, king of the Wampanoags, whose principal resi- 
dence was at Mount Hope in Rhotle Island* 



348 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

20. Philip, equally eminent for his warlike character and 
undaunted courage, was the most formidable enemy ever en- 
countered by the colonists. Having spent four years in ma- 
turing the plan of an extensive conspiracy which had for its 
object the utter extermination of the English, lie commenced 
hostilities, and by means of his alliances, was able to bring 
4,000 warriors into the field. Massachusetts, Connecticut 
and Plymouth united against him. The war was com- 
menced with great energy and spirit on both sides, and for 
some time conducted with equal success. In the great bat- 
tle known by the name of the Swamp Fight, 230 of the 
colonists were killed, while 1000 of the Indian warriors are 
supposed to have perished, and over 500 of their wigwams 
were burned. At length an end was put to these disasters 
in 1676, by the death of Philip, who was shot by one of 
his own men, who had joined a party of the English under 
the famous Captain Benjamin Church. 

21. At the commencement of this distressing war, the 
English population amounted to nearly 60,000 persons, of 
whom 600 had fallen in battle during the conflict, besides a 
much greater number of women and children, who were 
led into a miserable captivity by the Indians. Scarcely a 
family or individual remained, who had not to mourn the 
loss of a relative or friend. After the termination of this 
conflict however, the New England colonies were freed 
from the hostilities of the natives, until the war with the 
French, who employed the savages as auxiliaries. 

22. About the year 1692, the people of the colonies were 
thrown into the utmost consternation, by the extraordinary 
imaginary power of witchcraft. A Mr. Mather, a minister 
of New England, who was a firm believer in all these 
ridiculous stories, relates a number of these supernatural 
events, which at the present time, are more amusing than 
interesting. Severe laws were made against witchcraft, and 
not until twenty persons of both sexes had been executed, 
did the frenzy begin to cease. 

23. Maryland. The founder of Maryland was Sir 
George Calvert. Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, who 
was distinguished as a statesman, and had held the office of 
secretary of state in the reign of James I. of England, with 
a view of forming in America an asylum for himself and 
his persecuted brethren, sailed to Virginia about the year 
1631 ; but meeting an unwelcome reception there on ac- 
count of his religion, he fixed his attention upon a territory 
beyond the Potomac, and finding it unoccupied and well 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 349 

adapted to his purpose, he immediately returned to Eng- 
land and obtained of Charles I. a grant of the land. From 
Henrietta Maria, the consort of Charles, the country was 
called Maryland. 

24. Before the patent was completed, Sir George died, 
and the grant was transferred to his eldest son, Cecil ius 
Calvert, who inherited the titles of his father. Prepara- 
tions were immediately made for the settlement a colony. 
Remaining in England himself, Cecilius Calvert appointed 
his brother Leonard as governor of the intended settlement. 
On the 22d of November, in the year 1633, emigrants to 
the number of about 200, set sail from the Isle of Wight, 
in two small vessels, the Ark and Dove, and after a tedious 
passage arrived in March of the following year on the 
shores of the Chesapeake. Following the example of 
Columbus, they immediately erected a cross and returned 
thanks to God who had conducted the voyage to so happy 
an issue, and then took possession of the country in the 
name of their sovereign. After having purchased the land 
from the natives, they commenced the building of the town 
of St. Mary, which for many years remained the capital of 
the colony. 

25. The leading features of policy, adopted by the found- 
ers of this colony, claim our warmest admiration. Their 
Intercourse with the Indian tribes, was marked by the strict- 
est equity and humanity; at the same time the unrestrained 
exercise in matters of religion, granted to the professors of 
every creed, reflects the highest honor npon the memory of 
Lord Baltimore and his benevolent associates. Whilst the 
Episcopalians in Virginia would suffer no other form of 
worship among them, except that of the church of Eng- 
land, and whilst the Puritans of New England, punished 
with fines, tortures and exile, all those who differed from 
their creed, the Roman Catholics of Maryland, transcend- 
ing the proscriptive principles of the age, extended their 
arms, and invited among them, the victims of intolerance 
from every clime.* 

26. The tranquility of* the colony was for some time 
interrupted by the intrigues of Clayborne, who finally 

* Bancroft in his history of America, vol. 1, p. 268, speaking of 
Maryland says: "Its history is the history of benevolence, gratitude 
and toleration. The Roman Catholics who were oppressed by the 
laws of England, were sure to find a peaceful asylum in the quiet 
harbors ot the Chesapeake, and there too, Protestants were sheltered 
from Protestant intolerance." 



350 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

supplanted the proprietor, and compelled him to retire from 
the settlement. The very first act of those who succeed- 
ed in the government, was to strike out the fairest feature 
in the original constitution of the colony, namely, religious 
toleration, and to enact the severest penalties against the 
professors of every creed, at variance with that of the 
church of England. Thus the Roman Catholics were 
doomed to see themselves deprived of the free exercise of 
their religion, within the limits of that colony, in which 
they had labored to establish free toleration, and that too 
by the very persons to whom their benevolence had grant- 
ed an asylum and home. After several years of disorder, 
the authority of the proprietor was restored, and the pro- 
vince began to assume its usual prosperity. 

27. Pennsylvania. In 1681, the settlement of Penn- 
sylvania was commenced under the direction of the cele- 
brated William Penn, after whom the state is named. 
This eminent man was the son of Jlrfmiral Penn, who 
served in the British navy during the protectorate of Crom- 
well, and during a part of the reign of Charles II. In ear- 
ly life he embraced the tenets of Quakers, or Friends, and 
shared largely of the persecution which was carried on in 
England against them, being repeatedly harrassed by fines 
and imprisonment. Roused at length by these unjust and 
intolerant proceedings, Penn resolved to seek in the new 
world, an asylum from the oppression of the old. Accord- 
ingly he applied to Charles II., from whom he obtained 
the grant of a large tract of country, including the present 
state of Pennsylvania, in consideration of a debt due from 
the crown to his father. 

28. The first colony arrived in the country in 1681, and 
began a settlement above the confluence of the Delaware 
and Schuylkill rivers. In the month of October, of the fol- 
lowing year, Penn arrived in the colony, accompanied by 
2,000 associates chiefly of the denomination of the Friends 
or Quakers, and during the next year laid out the plan for 
the city of Philadelphia. Penn's first care after his arrival, 
was to conciliate the friendship of the Indians ; according- 
ly, having assembled a council, he obtained possession 
of the land by a fair purchase, giving them in exchange, 
such European goods as were useful to them, and entered 
into a solemn treaty with them, which was inviolably ob- 
served for a period of 70 years. 

29. His system of government was established on the 
most humane and liberal principles ; after the example of 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 351 

Lord Baltimore, lie made civil and religious liberty the basis 
of all his institutions, and to these wise regulations may be 
attributed the rapid advancement of Pennsylvania, in popu- 
lation, enterprise, and importance. In addition to the terri- 
tory included in the grant which he obtained from Charles, 
Petin became the proprietor of a tract of land, the present 
state of Delaware, which he obtained by purchase from the 
Duke of York. Having several times visited England, he at 
length died at London, in 1718, having reached the age of 
75 years. 

30. Delaware was first settled in 1627, by a company of 
Swedes and Finns, who having arrived in the country, 
purchased from the natives the land, from Cape Henlopen 
to the falls of the Delaware, and commenced a settlement 
at the mouth of Christiana creek, near Wilmington, and 
called the country New Sweden. But their empire was 
not destined to be of long duration. In 1831, the Dutch 
in the neighboring colony of New Netherlands, who had 
always regarded the Swedish settlement with an eye of 
jealousy, under their governor, Peter S/uyuesanf. invaded 
New Sweden and reduced the eolony to complete subjec- 
tion. When the English afterwards conquered New York, 
they also obtained Delaware, which was considered a part 
of that territory. 

31. New Jersey was first settled by Hrilanders and 
Swedes. When New York was ceded by Charles II. to 
his brother the Duke of York, all the territory between the 
Hudson and Delaware rivers, was included in the grant. 
The tract comprising the present state of New Jersey, he 
sold to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. In 1674, 
Lord Berkeley disposed of his share of New Jersey to 
two English Quakers, named Fenwicke and Byllinge, and 
in the year 1682, William Penn and eleven others of the 
society of Friends, became the proprietors of the remain- 
der of the province which they purchased from Sir George 
Carteret. The first governor was the celebrated Robert 
Barclay, the author of the " Apology for the Quakers," 
whose administration was for life. 

32. Tke Carolinas. The next provinces that claim our 
attention are North and S nith Carolina. Towards the mid- 
dle of the seventeenth century, a considerable number of 
persons, suffering in Virginia from religious intolerance, 
removed beyond the limits of that colony, and commenced 
a settlement in a portion of country north of Albemarle 
Sound, and shortly afterwards, another company of adven- 



352 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

turers from Massachusetts, settled near Cape Fear. In 
1663, Charles II. granted to Lord Clarendon and others, 
the entire tract of land lying between 31st and 36ih degree 
of north latitude, and extending from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific orean. 

33. The proprietors endeavored to hasten the settlement 
of this extensive region, by establishing a liberal govern- 
ment, allowing perfect freedom in religion and by offering 
a portion of land for the first five years at a half penny per 
acre. They afterwards extended their settlements to the 
banks of the Ashley and Cooper rivers, where Charleston 
now stands ; and in 1739, the title of the land was sold to 
ihe crown, after which the country was divided into North 
and South Carolina, and a royal governor appointed over 
each. During the year 1700, the growth of cotton was 
introduced, and two years later, that of rice, which articles 
have subsequently become the prominent staples of those 
provinces. 

34. Georgia. The last settled of the thirteen original 
states, that revolted against Great Britain, was Georgia, 
which receives its name from George II. In 1732, one 
hundred andsixteen persons embarked from England under 
general Og/ethrope, and arrived at Charleston early in the 
following year. From Charleston they sailed to their des- 
tined territory, and shortly after their arrival, they laid the 
foundation of the city of Savannah. For several years af- 
ter the settlement was commenced, the colony remained in 
a languishing state, but after the surrender of its charter to 
the crown, it began to flourish. 

34. In the year 1736, the celebrated John Wesley ar- 
rived in Georgia, and commenced his missionary labors 
among the colonists and Indians, but not meeting with the 
desired success, he returned again to England. Oglethrope 
was distinguished as a soldier and a statesman. At an ear- 
ly age he served on the continent of Europe under the cele- 
brated Prince Eugene, until the return of peace ; and on 
his return to England he was elected a member of the Brit- 
ish parliament. At the commencement of the American 
Revolution, he was offered the command of the British 
army, which high office he thought proper to decline. He 
died shortly after the contest was decided, at the advanced 
age of 97 years. 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 353 



SECTION IV. 

The French war ; Conquest of Canada; the Oppressive 
Measures of Great Britain towards the Colonies ; 
Commencement of Hostilities ; Battle of Lexington ; 
Bunker Hill ; Declaration of Independence. 

1. We have seen that the French made settlements in. 
Canada, at Quebec, on the banks of the St. Lawrence, 
about the same time that the English colony at Jamestown, 
was commenced in Virginia. Besides the possession of 
Canada in the north, France had also a territory on the 
Mississippi in the south, called Louisiana. The boundary 
between the English and French colonies, had long been a 
subject of dispute and unavailing negotiation. It had been 
for some time, a favorite object on the part of France, to 
connect her distant possessions, by erecting forts along the 
Ohio and the lakes, and thus to restrict the British to a lim- 
ited territory on the sea coast. 

2. This proceeding on the part of France, alarmed the 
British and called forth the most decisive measures. Re- 
peated complaints of violence having been made to the 
governor of Virginia, he determined to send a messenger 
to the French commander at Fort Du Quesne on the Ohio, 
where Pittsburg now stands, to demand the reasons of his 
hostile conduct, and to insist that he should evacuate the 
fort. The choice of a person to perform this arduous un- 
dertaking, fell upon George Washington, the future deliv- 
erer of his country, then a youth in the 21st year of his 
age. Having received his instructions from the governor, 
he departed on his perilous journey to the French settle- 
ment, at a distance of near 400 miles, one half of the route 
being through a wilderness inhabited by hostile savages. 
On the way his horse failing, he proceeded on foot, accom- 
panied by a single companion, with a gun in his hand and 
a pack on his shoulders. On the 12th of December he 
reached the French fort, delivered his message to the com- 
mander, and by the middle of January, returned in safety 
with an answer to the governor of Virginia. 

3. The reply not proving satisfactory, the organization 
of a regiment was immediately commenced in Virginia, to 
support the claims of Great Britain over the disputed terri- 
tory. Of this regiment, Mr. Fry was appointed colonel, 
and young Washington, lieutenant-colonel ; but on the 

15* 



354 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

death of Mr. Fry, which happened shortly after his ap- 
pointment, the command devolved on Washington. With- 
out delay, Washington marched forward at the head of a 
small force to dislodge the French from Fort Du Quesne, 
situated at the confluence of the Alleghany and Mononga- 
hela rivers. But before he reached the place, he was in- 
formed that the garrison had been strongly reinforced, and 
that a body of 900 French were advancing against him ; he 
therefore, thought it prudent to fall back to a fort which he 
had previously thrown up ; but before he had time to com- 
plete his defense, he was attacked by the French general, 
J)e Villier, and after making a brave resistance, he was 
compelled to yield on honorable terms of capitulation. 

4. In the year 1755, General Braddock arrived in Vir- 
ginia with two regiments, and after being joined by the 
provincials, under Washington, his forces amounted to 20,- 
000 men. Braddock was brave, but inexperienced as to the 
mode of Indian warfare. Washington, who acted as his aid- 
de-camp, asked permission to go forward and scour the woods 
with the provincial troops under his command, but Brad- 
dock, despising this prudent advice, pushed forward un- 
cautiously, and when within a few miles of Fort Du Quesne, 
he fell into an ambuscade of French and Indians. The invis- 
ible enemy commenced a heavy discharge of musketry 
upon his unprotected troops; the van was forced back upon 
the main body, and the whole army thrown into disorder. 
A dreadful slaughter now ensued. Braddock done all that 
a brave general could do, to encourage his men to stand the 
assault; but valor was unavailing. After an action of three 
hours, seven hundred of the English were left dead upon 
the field, and Braddock himself, after having three horses 
shot under him, fell mortally wounded ; Washington had 
two horses killed under him and four bullets passed through 
his coat, yet he escaped uninjured The provincial troops 
under his command, preserved their order, and covered the 
retreat of the regulars, who broke their ranks and could not 
be rallied. 

5. Three successive campaigns produced nothing but ex- 
pense and disappointment to the British government. The 
lakes and the whole western and northern border, were in 
possession of the French and Indians ; with an inferior 
force they had maintained a superiority, and even extended 
their encroachments. In 1756, a change was effected in 
the British ministry, and William Pitt, (afterwards Lord 
Chatham,) was raised to the head of the administration. 
From this moment, affairs began to assume a new aspect. 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 355 

The active and enterprising: genius of Pitt seemed to diffuse 
itself through every department of the state. He address- 
ed a circular to the colonies in America, assuring them that 
an effectual force should be sent from England, and called 
on them to furnish as large a force as their population would 
permit. The number of men brought into the field at the 
next campaign, amounted to 50,000, of which 20,000 
were raised in the colonies. 

6. The first expedition was directed against Louisburg, 
which, after an obstinate resistance, surrendered with a 
garrison consisting of nearly 6.000 men. Ticonderoga and 
Crown Point, next fell into the hands of the English. Ni- 
agara was besieged, and after a severe action also surren- 
dered. But a far more important and more dangerous en- 
terprise remained yet to be accomplished. The city of 
Quebec, a place strongly fortified by nature and art, the cap- 
ital of the French dominions in America, was protected by 
a garrison of 10,000 men, under the able and experienced 
general Montcalm. The arduous duty of reducing the 
place, was committed to the heroic general Wolfe. 

7. Having landed his army, consisting of 8,000 men, on 
the island of Orleans below Quebec, he made an unsuc- 
cessful attempt to reduce the city. Not discouraged by 
this failure, Wolfe conceived the design of ascending, dur- 
ing the night, a steep and craggy precipice, to an eminence 
on the north bank of the river, called the Heights of Abra- 
ham. This enterprise he effected with incredible labor, 
before Montcalm had the slightest intimation of his design, 
and by sun-rise the following morning, his whole army was 
arrayed on the plains above. A sanguinary battle ensued, 
in which the French were entirely defeated with a loss of 
1500 men, among whom were numbered four of their prin- 
cipal officers, who fell in the action. But while the French 
were called to mourn the loss of their brave general Mont- 
calm, the British were compelled to lament the death of 
the heroic Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory. This 
illustrious man having received a mortal wound, was car- 
ried to the rear of the army, where he caused himself to 
be raised that he might view the engagement. Faint with 
the loss of blood, he had reclined his head upon the arm of 
an officer, when he was roused by the cry: "They fly, 
they fly !" ** Who fly ?" exclaimed the dying general. Be- 
ing told that it was the enemy, he replied, " I die content- 
ed," and immediately expired. The sentiments of Mont- 
calm in the moments of death are equally remarkable. Be- 
ing told that he could not survive more than a few hours. 



356 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

he replied, " It is so much the better, I shall not then live 
to see the surrender of Quebec." This important battle 
was followed by the reduction of, the city, and subsequent- 
ly, by that of all Canada; so that of all the territories claim- 
ed by France in America, New Orleans and a few planta- 
tions on the Mississippi, alone remained in her possession, 
A. D. 1763. 

8. Never had the attachment of the colonies to the moth- 
er country, been more strongly manifested than during the 
French war, which had terminated so advantageously to 
England. The colonists felt proud of their descent and. 
connection with one of the most powerful nations of Eu- 
rope. The peculiar circumstances in which the early set- 
tlers had been placed, led them to study with more than 
usual rare, the principles of political liberty, and to view 
with a jealous eye, every encroachment of power. What 
degree of authority the parent country might exercise over 
the colonies, had never been defined. In England the doc- 
trine prevailed, that parliament had the power to bend them 
in all cases whatever; a principle, which in America, had 
been publicly denied. 

9. The expenses attending the recent war, had rendered 
it necessary to increase the usual taxes of the English na- 
tion ; but the ministry, apprehensive of rendering them- 
selves unpopular, by too severely pressing on the resources 
of the people at home, determined to raise a revenue from 
the colonies in America. In 1765, Mr. Grenvi/le, the com- 
missioner of the treasury, introduced the famous Stamp Act, 
by which all instruments of writing, such as law documents, 
deeds, leases, wills, &c, were to be null and void, unless on 
stamped paper, on which a duty was to be paid. The bill 
passed the house after a long and animated discussion. 

10. The news of this measure created the greatest sen- 
sation among the colonists ; they remonstrated against it, 
but in vain, the act went into execution during the follow- 
ing year. The assembly of Virginia was in session when 
the intelligence arrived ; a number of resolutions were im- 
mediately brought forward by the patriotic Patrick Henry, 
in opposition to the act. Massachusetts also declared her- 
self opposed to it, and in all the colonies, a determined 
spirit of resistance to the oppressive measure, was strong- 
ly manifested. When the news of the Stamp Act reached 
Boston, the hells were muffled, and rung a funeral peal; 
the crown officers were treated with insult, and in some in- 
stances, the houses were broken open or demolished. In 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 357 

the city of New York, the act was carried through the 
streets with a death's head affixed to it, bearing this inscrip- 
tion : "The folly of England, and the ruin of America." 
11. A Colonial Congress met at new New York, and 
published a declaration of their rights, insisting particular- 
ly on the exclusive right of taxing themselves, and loudly 
complaining of the Stamp Act. The merchants of Bos- 
ton, New York, and Philadelphia, entered into a combina- 
tion, and passed a resolution not to import or sell British 
goods, until the offensive measure should be repealed. So 
great and spirited was the opposition of the colonies, that 
the Stamp Act, through the exertions of Mr. Pitt, Lord 
Camden, and others, was repealed in the spring of 1766; 
but the repeal was accompanied with a declaration, that the 
British parliament had the power to enforce upon the colo- 
nies any measure it might think proper; and in accordance 
with this principle, an act was passed during the follow- 
ing year, 1767, imposing a duty on tea, paper, glass, and 
painters' colors. This act was followed by another most 
arbitrary declaration, that all offenders in Massachusetts, 
should be sent to England for trial, and in order to carry 
these measures into effect, two British regiments were sent 
over and quartered in Boston. 

12. The feelings of the citizens were highly exaspera- 
ted to see themselves beset by an insolent soldiery, sent 
over with the design of intimidating them into compliance 
with the arbitrary acts of the British parliament. Frequent 
disputes occurred between them and the soldiers, and on 
the 5th of March, 1770, a collision took place between a 
detachment of troops under Captain Preston, and the in- 
habitants of Boston, which resulted in the death of three of 
the latter, while five more were dangerously wounded. 
Captain Preston and the soldiers were brought to trial, and 
acquitted, except two who were convicted of man-slaugh- 
ter. 

13. Lord North succeeded the Duke of Grafton, as 
prime minister of England in 1770, when all the duties 
were repealed, with the exception of the one imposing three 
pence per pound on tea. Things continued in this state of 
partial irritation until the year 1773, when the British East 
India Company were authorized to export their tea to the 
colonies free of duty. The inhabitants of New York and 
Philadelphia, prevented the landing of the tea ships sent to 
these cities, but the people of Boston showed their resent- 
ment in a different manner; a party of men disguised as 



358 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

Indian 3 , boarJed the vessels, and threw the tea, consisting 
of 342 chests, into the harbor. 

14. Nothing could exceed the indignation of parliament, 
when the news of this transaction reached England. An 
act was immediately passed, by which the port of Boston 
was closed, and the government and officers transferred to 
Salem, A. D. 1774. 

In May of the same year, General Gage, who had been 
appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in North 
America, arrived in Boston ; and was shortly followed by 
two regiments more, with artillery and military stores. 

By these proceedings, the Americans very justly con- 
cluded that it was the object of the British government to 
reduce them to obedience by force of arms ; that the hour 
of reconciliation was passed ; that their rights could only 
be maintained by an appeal to force ; therefore without de- 
lay, they began to prepare themselves for the contest. 

15. An agreement was entered into by many of the most 
distinguished men of Massachusetts, called a " Solemn 
League and Covenant," by which they determined to sus- 
pend all intercourse with Great Britain, until their rights 
should be restored. A regular enlistment of soldiers was 
commenced, and five general officers were appointed. The 
general court of Massachusetts resolved that a congress of 
the colonies should be called ; accordingly on the 5th of 
September, delegates from all the colonies except Georgia, 
met at Philadelphia. This body generally known by the 
name of the Continental Congress, of which Peyton Ran- 
dolph, of Virginia, was the first president, consisted of fifty- 
five members. They published a declaration of the colo- 
nies ; agreed to suspend all intercourse with Great Britain ; 
and drew up an address to the king, another to the people 
of England, and a third to the colonies. 

16. When the proceedings of the Continental Congress 
were laid before the parliament, an address was presented 
to the king, declaring that Massachusetts was in a state of 
rebellion, and requesting that effectual means might be taken 
to suppress it. Accordingly, during the winter and spring 
of 1775, the number of royal troops in Boston, were in- 
creased to 10,000, a force deemed sufficient for that pur- 
pose. In February General Gage dispatched a body of 
troops to Salem, to take possession of some pieces of can- 
non ; but they were disappointed of their object; the can- 
non having been removed through the precaution of the 
provincials, who had received intimation of their design. 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 359 

17. Ill April, Gage sent another body of troops, under 
Colonel Smith and Major Piteairn, to destroy the military 
stores, which had been collected at Concord, about 20 miles 
distant from Boston. On the morning of the 1 9th of April, 
as they passed through Lexington, they were met by a 
party of militia, to the number of about 70, who had assem- 
bled on the green for the purpose of opposing their pro- 
gress. Major Pitcairn riding up, called out to them to dis- 
perse ; but not being obeyed, he discharged his pistol, and 
ordered his men to fire. Eight of the Americans were 
killed and several wounded. Thus was shed the first blood 
in that memorable contest, which finally resulted in se- 
curing the liberty and establishing the Independence of 
America. 

18. The royal troops after this, proceeded to Concord 
and destroyed some military stores collected in the town. 
The British commander then attempted to cut off the ap- 
proach of the Americans from the neighborhood by des- 
troying or occupying the bridges. Accordingly a small 
force was sent to lake possession of a bridge over Concord 
river, but being attacked by the Americans, who were de- 
sirous of keeping open a communication with the town, a 
smart action took place, which terminated in the retreat of 
the British with a loss of several killed and wounded. 
Hastily burying their dead in the public square, the British 
troops commenced their march, or rather their retreat, to- 
wards Boston. In the mean time, the people of the neigh- 
borhood flew to arms, and attacked the retreating troops on 
every side ; an incessant fire was kept up from behind trees, 
walls, and rocks, until they reached Lexington, where they 
were joined by a reinforcement which secured their retreat 
to Boston, after sustaining a loss of 65 killed and 180 
wounded. The Americans lost 50 killed and 34 wounded. 

19. From the first appearance of the approaching contest, 
the Americans were anxious, that when an attack should 
be made, the British should be the agressors. In this they 
were gratified by the affair at Lexington, which was now 
considered a signal for hostilities. The forts, magazines and 
arsenals, within the limits of the colonies were instantly 
secured for the use of the Americans. Congress on hear- 
ing of what had taken place at Lexington, immediately 
passed a resolution for raising an army of 30,000 men in 
New England ; and in a short time a considerable force was 
collected in the vicinity of Boston. The first expedition 
was directed against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which 



3QQ AMERICAN COLONIES. 

were taken by surprise. Towards the end of May, a con- 
siderable reinforcement of British troops arrived at Boston, 
.under the command of the Generals Howe, Clinton, and 
Burgoyne, officers of high reputation. 

20. For the purpose of annoying, or if possible, to drive 
the British from Boston, a detachment of 1,000 men, under 
the command of Colonel Prescott, was ordered to throw up 
a breastwork on Bunker Hill, but by some mistake they 
took possession of Breed's Hill, an eminence much nearer 
Boston. Moving silently to the spot on the evening of the 
16th of June, they prosecuted their design with so much 
expedition, that by the return of day, they had nearly com- 
pleted an intrenchment of ten rods square. At the break 
of day their operations being discovered, a brisk cannon- 
ade was commenced from a vessel lying in the harbor, 
against the works of the Americans, without being able to 
retard their progress. During the morning, Colonel Pres- 
cott received a reinforcement of 500 men. About noon, a 
detachment of 2,000 men, under the command of General 
Howe, were sent to drive the Americans from their intrench- 
ments. A severe engagement followed ; during which the 
British were twice repulsed with dreadful slaughter; but, 
from the failure of the ammunition of the Americans, they 
finall}'' succeeded in carrying the fortifications, after sustain- 
ing a loss of 1,054 in killed and wounded. The loss on 
the part of the Americans amounted to 453; but among 
the slain they had to number the much lamented and patri- 
otic Major-general. Warren, who had hastened as a volun- 
teer to the field of battle. While the British were advanc- 
ing to the attack, Charlestown was ordered to be set on fire, 
and in a few hours the whole town, consisting of 400 
houses, was laid in ashes. 

21. The Congress then in session in Philadelphia, re- 
solved on immediate measures of defense; they began the 
organization of a continental army, selected George Wash- 
ington, a member of their body from Virginia, as comman- 
der-in-chief, and made the appointment of subordinate 
officers under him. With much diffidence, General Wash- 
ington received the appointment, but without delay entered 
immediately on the duties of his office, and by the 2d of 
July, joined the army at Cambridge. 

22. With a view of guarding the frontiers, a plan was 
devised for the invasion of Canada, and if possible, to re- 
duce the country. In pursuance of this object, a body of 
troops under Schuyler and Montgomery, were sent to that 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 361 

province; but the former having returned to treat with the 
Indians, was prevented by sickness from again joining the 
army. The chief command therefore, devolved upon 
Montgomery, who having taken Fort Chamblee, St. John's, 
and the city of Montreal, which surrendered without resis- 
tance, he pursued his victories to the very walls of Quebec. 
Colonel Arnold was sent with a reinforcement of 1000 men 
to join Montgomery, and after a fatiguing march through 
the wilderness, during which his troops were exposed to 
incredible suffering-, he reached Quebec in November. — 
After remaining before the city for some time, without the 
slightest prospect of being able to take it by a siege, they 
resolved to attempt it by an assault. Accordingly, on the 
last day of December, they made an attack upon the city 
in three separate divisions, which, however, proved unsuc- 
cessful, and fatal to' the brave Montgomery, who fell in the 
act of scaling the walls. 

23. Early in the following spring, the Americans being 
obliged to relinquish their design of reducing Canada, evac- 
uated the country. About this time the flourishing town 
of Norfolk was wantonly burnt, by order of Lord Bun' 
more, the royal governor of Virginia ; and Falmouth, a 
town in the province of Maine, shared the same fate, being 
laid in ashes by order of the British admiral. In October 
General Gage, having embarked for England, the com- 
mand of the British forces devolved on Sir William Howe. 

24. During the summer and autumn of 1775, the army 
under General Washington, amounting in number to near 
15,000 men, remained inactive for want of suitable arms 
and ammunition ; but early in the following spring an ef- 
fort was made to dislodge the British from Boston. On 
the night of the 4th of March, a battery was erected with 
much secrecy and dispatch, on Dorchester Heights, a situ- 
ation that completely commanded the city. Unable to re- 
move the Americans from their position, General Howe 
deemed it expedient to evacuate the town ; accordingly on 
the 17th of March he embarked his troops for Halifax, and 
General Washington, on the same day, entered the city in 
triumph, amidst the joyous acclamations of the inhabitants. 

25. Early in the ensuing summer, a small armament 
under the command of Sir Peter Parker, and a body of 
troops under General Clinton, made an attack on Charles- 
ton, the capital of South Carolina; but after a violent as- 
sault upon the fort on Sullivan's Island, from which they 
were repulsed with considerable loss, the enterprize was 



362 UNITED STATES. 

abandoned. When the news of the battle of Bunker Hill 
reached England, it filled all minds with surprize and as- 
tonishment. Lord Chatham, Burke and Fox, endeavored, 
but in vain, to produce a change in the measures of the 
government. The ministry blindly persisted in their plans, 
and obtained an act of parliament, authorizing - them to em- 
ploy 16,000 mercenary troops from the Landgrave of 
Hesse and the Duke of Brunswick. All trade and inter- 
course with the colonies were prohibited, and their proper- 
ty on the high seas was declared forfeited to those who 
should capture it ^ 

26. At the commencement of the controversy, the Amer- 
icans had contended only for their rights as British; but 
these hostile measures induced them to assume a loftier po- 
sition. Seeing there was no alternative left, but that of ab- 
solute freedom, or unconditional submission, they determin- 
ed to sever entirely those ties that bound them to the moth- 
er country, and assert their independence. On the 7th of 
June, a motion was made in Congress by Richard Henry 
Lee of Virginia, and seconded by John Adams of Massa- 
chusetts, for declaring the colonies free and independent; 
and at the same time a committee, consisting of Jefferson, 
Adams, Franklin, Sherman and Livingston, were ap- 
pointed to prepare the Declaration of Independence, which 
was finally adopted after a full discussion, by a vote almost 
unanimous, on the memorable 4th of July, 1776. (See 
Declaration in Appendix.) 



UNITED STATES. 

SECTION V. 

The war of the Revolution continued. 

I. During the second Continental Congress, the prov- 
inces which had united against the oppressive measures of 
Great Britain, received the appellation of the United Colo- 
nies, but in the Declaration of Independence, they were 
styled the United States of America ; hence from this pe- 
riod, the history of the United States should properly com- 
mence. 



UNITED STATES. 363 

The first important battle that took place after the Decla- 
ration of Independence, was that of Long Island. In 
June, General Howe arrived off Sandy Hook, where he 
was shortly afterwards joined by his brother, Admiral Lord 
Howe, with a great naval armament. General Washing-ton, 
who knew that the favorite objact of the British was to get 
possession of New York, had removed to that city with the 
greater part of his army. 

2. On the 22nd of August, the British landed on Long 
Island, and on the 27th a severe engagement took place, 
in which the Americans were defeated with a loss of near- 
ly 1000 men. The American generals, Sullivan and Lord 
Stirling, fell into the hands of the British, whose loss was 
estimated at about 400 men. During the engagement, Gen- 
eral Washington had hastened from New York, with rein- 
forcements to the scene of action ; but considering the in- 
equality of numbers, it was thought expedient to evacuate 
the Island, which was accordingly effected on the night of 
the 28th of the same month, with so much silence and 
order, that the British army, although not more than a 
quarter of a mile distant, had no intimation of their design 
until the Americans, with all their tents and baggage, were 
safely landed in the city of New York. 

3. General Howe, who had been commissioned to settle 
the difficulties with the colonies, thought this a favorable 
opportunity for making proposals for an accommodation. 
He therefore, dispatched several letters to General Wash- 
ington ; but as they were directed to George Washington, 
Esq., &c, the commander-in-chief refused to receive them, 
unless addressed to him in his proper character. Howe 
then sent General Sullivan, who had been taken prisoner 
in the battle of Long Island, with a message to Congress ; 
and in a few days after this, Dr. Franklin, John Adams, 
and Edward Rutledge, were commissioned to hold an in- 
terview with the British general. They were politely re- 
ceived, but no accommodations of peace being effected, 
they returned to Philadelphia. 

4. In September, the city of New York was abandoned 
by the American army, and shortly afterwards occupied by 
the British. Washington, with a part of his army had re- 
tired to White Plains, where, on the 28th of October, a 
severe though indecisive action took place, with a loss of 
several hundred on both sides ; and shortly afterwards, 
Fort Washington, on the Hudson, was reduced by General 
Howe, and its garrison, consisting of 2,000 men was cap- 



d64 UNITED STATES. 

tured. General Washington now retired to Newark; from 
thence he passed through New Brunswick, Princeton, 
Trenton, and finally crossed over to the Pennsylvania side 
of the Delaware, being so closely pursued by the British 
under Lord Cornwallis, that the rear of the one army was 
often in sight of the van of the other. 

5. The affairs of the Americans at this crisis bore the 
most gloomy appearance. The army under General Wash- 
ington, reduced by the loss of men in killed, wounded and 
prisoners, by the desertion of some and the departure of 
others, whose term of enlistment had expired, amounted to 
only about 3,000 ; and of this number, many were without 
shoes or clothing suitable to screen them from the inclem- 
ency of the season. To add to these disasters General Lee 
had been taken prisoner at Baskenridge ; and Rhode Island 
fell into the hands of the British. 

6. It was at this critical moment, when despair had per- 
vaded almost every breast, that the expiring hopes of the 
nation were roused by a daring exploit of General Wash- 
ington. On the night of the 25th of December, he crossed 
the Delaware on the ice, surprised the enemy at Trenton, 
and took the whole body, consisting of about 1,000 Hessian 
troops, under the command of Colonel Rahl, who was slain. 
He then proceeded to Princeton, and on the 3d of January, 
1777, defeated a party of the British, who lost about 100 
men, and compelled the remainder, about 300 in number, to 
surrender themselves prisoners. In this action the Ameri- 
cans lost General IVtercer, of Virginia, a brave and expe- 
rienced officer. During the latter part of the year 1776, 
Congress had manifested the greatest energy, Measures 
were adopted for increasing the army, and Dr. Franklin, 
Arthur Lee and Silas Deane, commissioned to Europe to 
solicit the aid and alliance of foreign powers. 

7. During the spring of 1777, governor Tyron was sent 
to destroy stores at Danbury in Connecticut; the design 
was executed and the town partly burnt; the British on 
their return, were severely harassed by the Connecticut 
militia under General Wooster, who was unfortunately 
killed oti the occasion. It had been long the object of 
General Howe, to get possession of Philadelphia; for this 
purpose he embarked his troops, amounting to about 16,000 
men, at Staten Island, entered the Chesapeake Bay, and 
landing near the head of Elk river, commenced his march 
towards that city. General Washington, perceiving his 
object, hastened to oppose his progress with a much inferior 



UNITED STATES. 365 

force. On the 11th of September, a battle was fought on 
the banks of the Brandy/vine, in which the American^ 
were defeated with considerable -loss. In this battle two 
eminent foreigners served under the American colors, — the 
Marquis de Lafayette* of France, and Pulaski, of Poland, 
the former of whom was wounded. 

8. After this victory, the British General immediately 
directed his niarch to Philadelphia, and stationed the prin- 
cipal part of his army at Germantown, about seven miles 
from that city. On the 4th of October, General Washing- 
ton attempted to surprise the detachment at Germantown, 
but was repulsed with a loss of 1,200 men in killed, 
wounded and prisoners, while the loss of the enemy was 
about, half that number. While these operations were car- 
ried on in the middle states, more auspicious events were 
taking place in the north. General Burgoyne, who com- 
manded the British army in that quarter, took possession 
of Ticonderoga, which had been abandoned by the Ameri- 
cans under General St. Clair. But his progress was check- 
ed by the defeat of Colonel Baum, near Bennington, in 
Vermont, by a body of militia, under General Stark. 

9. Burgoyne, having collected his forces, crossed the 
Hudson and encamped near Saratoga. General Gates, 
who had lately been appointed to the command of the 
American army in the north, advanced towards the enemy, 
and on the 19th of September, an obstinate but undecisive 
engagement took place at Stillwater, and shorily after this 
another severe action occurred, in which the British were 
defeated and General Fraser killed, the American Generals 
Arnold and Lincoln, were wounded. General Burgoyne 
having made several ineffectual attempts to retreat, and find- 
ing his situation growing hourly more critical, called a coun- 
cil of war, in which it was resolved to surrender by capit- 
ulation. Accordingly, on the 17th of October, his whole 
army, amounting to near 6,000 men, surrendered to Gen- 
eral Gates as prisoners of war. 

10. This event diffused universal joy among the Ameri- 
cans, and inspired them with ardor in the cause of freedom. 
The court of France, which had secretly wished success to 
the cause of the United States, was restrained from giving 
open countenance to their agents, umil after the surrender 
of Burgoyne. This event determined the course of France. 
A negotiation was immediately formed with the American 
commissioners, and on the 6th of February, 1778, a treaty 
of alliance, of amity, and commerce was concluded and 



366 UNITED STATES. 

signed at Paris. The British ministry on receiving intelli- 
gence of the alliance between France and the United States, 
began to hold out terms of reconciliation to the Americans, 
but the Congress was now too sanguine in the hope of suc- 
cess, to listen to any terms short of an acknowledgment of 
their independence. 

11. In the mean time, General Howe, who had returned 
to England, was succeeded in the chief command, by Sir 
Henri/ Clinton. It was now determined to concentrate the 
British forces in New York ; accordingly, Clinton, having 
evacuated Philadelphia in June, crossed the Delaware, and 
proceeded on his march to that city. But as he retired he 
was closely pursued by the American army, under General 
Washington, and on the 28th of June a severe engagement 
took place at Monmouth court-house, in which the British 
were repulsed with a heavy loss, and a signal victory must 
have been obtained, had General Lee obeyed his orders. 
For his misconduct on that day, Lee was suspended from 
duty and never afterwards joined the army. 

12. In July, a French fleet of 12 ships of the line, and 
4 frigates, under the command of Count d'Estaign, arrived 
at the mouth of the Delaware ; but towards the close of the 
season it sailed to the West Indies, without having perform- 
ed any important service. The last transaction of this 
year, was an expedition against Georgia, and on the last 
day of December the British took possession of Savannah. 

13. 1779. During this year the principal theatre of the 
war was changed from the north to the southern provinces 
of the country. On the 15th of July, a detachment under 
General fVayne, was sent to dislodge the British from 
Stony Point, on the Hudson; the expedition was conduct- 
ed with so much courage and resolution, that the whole 
garrison, to ihe number of 500 men, surrendered without 
the loss of a single individual on either side. In October, 
General Lincoln and Count d'Estaign, made an attack up- 
on Savannah, but were repulsed with considerable loss. In 
this action the brave and patriotic Pulaski of Poland, was 
mortally wounded. 

14. 1780. On the opening; of the campaign of this year, 
the British troops evacuated Rhode Island. An expedition 
under Sir Henry Clinton and Lord Cornwallis, was under- 
taken against Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, 
which was compelled to capitulate, after a siege of six 
months, and the whole garrison, consisting of about 2,500 
men, together with all the adult male inhabitants, were sur- 



UNITED STATES- 36? 

rendered as prisoners of war. Clinton leaving 4,000 troops 
under the command of Lord Cornwallis, returned to New 
York. For the purpose of subjecting the interior of the 
province, a considerable force was sent to Camden, under 
Lord Raw don. His troops however, were greatly harass- 
ed by small parties of the Americans under General Sump- 
ter, and other distinguished officers. 

15. General Gates, who had been appointed to the com- 
mand of the southern army in the place of General Lin- 
coln, arrived in South Carolina in the latter part of July, 
and having concentrated his forces, prepared to oppose the 
progress of the British. Lord Cornwallis hastened to join 
Lord Rawclon with re-inforcements, and on the 16th of 
August, a severe engagement took place between the two 
armies, in which General Gates was defeated with the loss 
of upwards of 700 men. In this, Baron de Kalb, an illus- 
trius Prussian General, then in the American service, brave- 
ly maintained his position at the head of the regular troops 
of Maryland and Delaware, until overpowered by numbers 
and almost surrounded, he was taken prisoner and died on 
the following day of the wounds he received. In July M. 
de Ternay, with a French fleet, carrying 6,000 land foices 
under Count de Rochambeau, arrived at Rhode Island. — 
This event gave universal joy to the Americans; but the 
fleet, leaving the land forces, shortly returned again to 
France. 

16. This year is distinguished for the treachery of Gen- 
eral Arnold General Washington being called to Con- 
necticut on business of importance, left the important for- 
tress of West Point, under the command of Arnold, who 
had previously distinguished himself at the siege of Que- 
bec, and subsequently received a severe wound at Saratoga. 
He afterwards commanded in Philadelphia, where his op- 
pressive conduct, rendered him subject to a trial by court 
martial, by which he was sentenced to be reprimanded, 
He determined to have revenge; and for this purpose, he 
entered into a negotiation with Sir Henry Clinton, to de- 
liver up West Point with all its garrison, into the hands of 
the British. 

17. The British agent, through whom the negotiation 
with Arnold was conducted, was the unfortunate Major 
Jlndre. After having an interview with the traitor, An- 
dre was on his return to New York, with the papers in 
Arnold's own hand writing concealed in his boot, when he 
was detected by three Americans, and thus the treacherous 



368 UNITED STATES. 

designs were fortunately discovered in season, to prevent 
their execution. Andre being convicted as a spy, his life 
was forfeited by the laws of war. He was accordingly 
condemned and executed. His youth and his many amia- 
ble qualities, had endeared him to the officers of the Brit- 
ish army, while his late was deeply regretted by all. Ar- 
nold escaped to the English, and received as the reward of 
his treason, an appointment to the office of brigadier-gen- 
eral in the British army. 

18. 1781. The campaign of this year commenced by 
an expedition under Arnold, who made a descent upon the 
coast of Virginia, and committed extensive depredations. 
After the defeat of Gates, General Green was appointed to 
the army in the southern department. From this period, 
affairs in that quarter began to wear a more favorable as- 
pect. Colonel Tarleton, the British commander, was de- 
feated by General Morgan, at the battle of the Cow- Pens. 
The two armies at length, under their respective command- 
ers, met near Guildford court-house, in North Carolina, 
where one of the best contested battles fought during the 
whole war, took place. The Americans were obliged to 
retire fr mi the field, yet the British suffered so severe a 
loss that they were unable to pursue the victory. 

19. In September, General Green obtained an important 
victory over the British, under Colonel. Stuart, at Eutaw 
Springs, where General Marion particularly distinguished 
himself, and Colonel Washington, a relative of the com- 
mander-in-chief, was wounded and taken prisoner. After 
this battle, Lord Cornwallis leaving South Carolina, march- 
ed into Virginia, and having collected his forces, fortified 
himself at Forktown. General Washington, learning the 
position of Cornwallis, secretly left his camp at White 
Plains, crossed the Hudson with his army, and passing 
rapidly through New Jersey and Pennsylvania, arrived at 
the head of Elk river, where he was joined by a consider- 
able re-inforcement under Marquis de Lafayette. 

20. In the mean time, Clinton, who was not apprised of 
the departure of General Washington, until it was too late 
to pursue him, sent a detachment of troops under Arnold^ 
the traitor, against New London, in Connecticut, which 
was set on fire and burnt to the ground. While Washing- 
ton was on his march to Virginia, he received the cheering 
intelligence of the arrival of a French fleet, consisting of 
24 ships of the line, under Count de Grasse, in the Ches- 
apeake. A British fleet of 19 vessels, under Admiral 



UNITED STATES. 369 

Graves, soon after appeared off the Capes. A slight en- 
gagement took place between the two fleets, in which the 
French had the advantage, and remained in possession of 
the bay. 

21. A body of French troops was now landed, in order 
to co-operate with the Americans, under General Wash- 
ington, who by this time had embarked his forces and ar- 
rived at Yorktown. A close siege was now commenced 
and carried on with so much vigor by the united forces of 
France and America, that Lord Comwallis, on the 19th 
of October, was compelled to sign articles of capitulation, 
by which the British army, military stores and shipping, 
were surrendered to General Washington. The number 
of the British forces that surrendered on that occasion 
amounted to something over 7000, but many of them at 
the time were unfit for duty. When the news of this glo- 
rious event, which was considered as deciding the contest, 
was reported to Congress, that body immediately recom- 
mended that a day of public thanksgiving should be ob- 
served throughout the United States. Shortly after the 
surrender of Comwallis, the British evacuated nearly all 
their posts in South Carolina and Georgia, and joined the 
main army in New York. 

22. As no rational hope now remained fof conquering 
America, Great Britain at length resolved to discontinue 
the prosecution of a war, which had already exhausted the 
nation and reflected discredit upon their arms. According- 
ly, on the 30th 4 of November, provisional articles of peace 
were signed, in which the independence of the United 
States was acknowledged ; and the 3d of September, 1783, 
there was concluded, at Versailles, by Franklin, Adams', 
Jay and Lawrence, on the part of America, and Mr. Os- 
wald, on the part of Great Britain, a definite treaty of 
peace , by which the thirteen United Colonies were admit- 
ted to be "Free, sovereign and independent States." 

Thus terminated that long and eventful war of the revo- 
lution, which cost Great Britain, besides the loss, of her 
colonies, the sum of £ 1,000, 000 sterling, and the lives of 
50,000 of her subjects. A contest, which produced for 
America, as the happy reward of her trials, her sufferings, 
and the blood of her patriots, the ^establishment of her 
freedom and independence. 

23. Peace being thus restored, the first step of Congress, 
was to disband the army. But here a serious difficulty 
arose, respecting the payment of the arrears of the officers 

16 



370 UNITED STATES. 

and privates, many of whom had not received for five years 
the smallest compensation. The most serious consequen- 
ces were about to ensue, when the storm, which seemed 
ready to plunge the rising republic into all the horrors of 
civil war, was happily quelled by the prudence and energy 
of General Washington. Congress having made arrange- 
ments for the payment of the soldiers, fixed upon the 3rd 
of November for disbanding the army. 

24. On the day previous, Washington issued his fare- 
well address, bidding an affectionate adieu to the soldiers, 
who had fought and bled by his side. After taking leave 
of the army, he was called to the still more painful duty 
of separation from officers, endeared to him by the mutual 
dangers and sufferings they had endured together. After 
this he immediately repaired to Annapolis, where Congress 
was then in session, resigned his military commission and 
declared that he was no longer invested with any public 
character. Having thus given back the almost unlimited 
power he possessed, to that source from whence he receiv- 
ed it, he retired to his estate at Mount Vernon, and again 
devoted himself to the peaceful pursuits of agriculture, car- 
rying to his retirement the gratitude of his country, and 
the applause and admiration of the world. 

25. At the close of the war, when the states were re- 
leased from the presence of danger, the government, under 
the Articles of Confederation was found to be weak, and 
wholly insufficient for the public exigencies. The author- 
ity of Congress was but little respected; a large public 
debt had been contracted, and no provisions had been made 
for paying the principal or the interest. The necessity, 
therefore, of a more efficient and general system of gov- 
ernment, was extensively felt; and in accordance with a 
proposition of the legislature of Virginia, commissioners 
from several states met, in 1786, at Annapolis, for the pur- 
pose of entering into certain commercial regulations. But 
after some deliberation, they determined to adjourn with a 
proposal to all the other states, to appoint delegates to meet 
at Philadelphia, for the purpose of digesting a form of gov- 
ernment equal to the exigences of the Union. 

26. Agreeable to this proposition, delegates from every 
state, except Rhode Island, convened at Philadelphia on 
the 25th of May, 1787. On the motion of Robert Morris, 
of Pennsylvania, General Washington, one of the delegates 
from Virginia, was unanimously elected President of the 
Convention, 



UNITED STATES. 371 

On taking the chair, he thanked the members of the Con- 
vention for the honor they had conferred upon him ; re- 
minded them of the novelty of the scene of business in 
which lie was about to act, lamented his want of better 
qualifications, and claimed the indulgence of the house for 
any involuntary errors which his inexperience might occa- 
sion. On the 29th of May, the draft of a federal govern- 
ment, differing in some particulars from the present Con- 
stitution, was laid before the house by Mr. Charles Pink- 
ney, of South Carolina. The Convention then proceeded 
to discuss each clause separately, during which various 
opinions were advanced by the different delegates, and fre- 
quently animated discussions followed. 

27. On the subject of salaries to the executive branch of 
the legislature, Air. Wilson* of Pennsylvania, who was 
opposed to the measure, observed : " Sir, there are two 
passions which have a powerful influence on the affairs of 
men. These are ambition and avarice; the love ol power, 
and the love of money. Separately, each of these has 
great force in prompting men to action ; but when united in 
view of the same object, they have in many minds the most 
violent effects. Place before the eyes of such men, a post 
of honor* and at the same time that oi profit, and they will 
move heaven and earth to obtain it. . . . And of what kind 
are the men that will strive for this profitable pre-eminence, 
through all the bustle of cabal, the heat of contention, the 
mutual abuse of parties, tearing to pieces the best of char- 
acters ? It will not be the wise and moderate, the lovers of 
peace and good order, the men fittest for trust. It will be 
the bold and violent, men of strong passions, and indefati- 
gable activity in selfish pursuits."* 

28. On the morning of the 17th of September, after the 
last reading of the Constitution, Doctor Franklin arose with 
a speech in his hand, which he had reduced to writing for 
his own convenience, and which read in the following 
words : 

Mr. President: I confess that there are several parts of 
this Constitution, which I do not at present approve, but I 
am not sure that I shall never approve them. For having 
lived long, I have experienced many instances of being 
obliged by better information, or fuller consideration, to 
change my opinions even on important subjects, which I 
once thought right, but found to be otherwise. It is, there- 
fore, that the older I grow, the more apt I am to doubt my 

# Madison Papers, p. 772, 



872 UNITED STATES. 

own judgment, and to pay more respect to the judgment of 
others. In these sentiments, Sir, I agree to this Constitu- 
tion with all its faults, if they are such ; because I think a 
general government necessary for us, and there is no form 
of government but what may prove a blessing to the peo- 
ple, if well administered. Thus I consent, Sir, to this 
Constitution, because I expect no better, and because I am 
not sure that it is not the best. The opinions I have had 
of its errors, I sacrifice to the public good. I have never 
whispered them abroad ; within these walls they were born, 
here they shall die. I hope, therefore, that for our own 
sakes, as apart of the people, and for the sake of posterity, 
we shall act heartily and unanimously in recommending this 
Constitution, if approved by Congress, wherever our influ- 
ence may extend, and turn our future thoughts and endeav- 
ors to the means of having it well administered."* The 
Constitution was then signed by all the delegates present 
with the exception of Mr. Randolph, Mr. Mason, and Mr. 
Gerry, who declined giving it the sanction of their names. 
(See the Constitution of the United States, with names 
of the delegates from each State, in the Appendix.) 

29. After four months deliberation, the Federal Consti- 
tution being thus almost unanimously agreed to by the 
members of the Convention, was presented to Congress, 
and by that body transmitted to the several states for their 
consideration ; and being at length accepted and ratified by 
eleven of the thirteen confederate States, it became the 
Constitution of the United States, A. D. 1788. North 
Carolina and Rhode Island, the two States which at first 
dissented from it, afterwards adopted it; the former, in 
1789, and the latter in 1790. 

30. By the Constitution, all legislative powers are vested 
in a Congress of the United States, consisting of a Presi- 
dent, a Senate and House of Representatives. (See the 
Constitution in the Appendix.) 

According to the Constitution, the several states imme- 
diately elected their delegates to Congress; and by the 
unanimous vote, General Washington was chosen the first 
President. When the appointment was officially announced 
to him, he yielded to the unanimous call of his country; 
and bidding adieu to his peaceful retirement at Mount Ver- 
non, he proceeded without delay to New York, where the 
Congress was then assembled. His progress to that city 

*Ibid. p. 1596. 



UNITED STATES. 373 

was marked by every demonstration of gratitude and res- 
pect; triumphal arches were erected to commemorate his 
achievements; he was hailed as the father of his country; 
the aged invoked a thousand benedictions upon him as he 
passed ; the young expressed their hope, that as he had de- 
fended the injured rights of their parents, he would not re- 
fuse his protection to their children. 

31. On the 30th of April, he was inaugurated President 
of the United States, in the City Hall of New York, the 
oath of office being administered by Mr. Livingston, chan- 
cellor of the State of New York. When he retired to the 
senate chamber, he addressed both houses in an impressive 
speech ; reminding them that no truth was more thoroughly 
established, than that there existed an indissoluble union 
between virtue and happiness ; — between duty and advan- 
tage ; between the genuine maxims of an honest and mag- 
nanimous people, and the solid rewards of public prosper- 
ity and felicity ; and that the propitious smiles of an over- 
ruling Providence could never be expected on a nation, re- 
gardless of the fundamental rules of order and right, which 
heaven itself had ordained. 

32. John Adams, of Massachusetts, who had borne a 
distinguished part in the Revolution, was elected the first 
Vice-President. The other principal officers, at the first 
organization of the government, were Thomas Jefferson, 
Secretary of State ; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the 
Treasury; Henry Knox, Secretary of War; Edmund 
Randolph, Attorney General; and John Jay, Chief Jus- 
tice of the United States. The first event of importance 
that distinguished the administration of Washington, was a 
sanguinary war with the Indians to the north of Ohio, who 
obtained a victory over Generals Harmer and St. Clair ; 
but General Wayne, who was appointed to the command 
of the army in that section of the country, brought the war 
to a successful termination, and compelled the savages to 
conclude a treaty of peace in 1795, at Greenville. 

33. The first object of the legislative attention was to 
replenish the treasury. For this purpose, duties were laid 
on imported merchandise, and a reasonable taxation imposed 
on the tonnage of vessels. In 1790, Colonel Hamilton 
brought forward a bill for the formation of a national bank. 
On this subject the cabinet was divided. Mr. Jefferson 
and Mr. Randolph, considered the bill as decidedly uncon- 
stitutional. Hamilton and others with equal decision main- 
tained the contrary opinion. But after a protracted debate, 



374 UNITED STATES. 

a bill for establishing such a bank passed both branches of 
the legislature, and received the signature of the President. 
The bank was chartered for twenty years, with a capital of 
ten millions, in shares of four hundred dollars each. This 
measure seemed to increase the disaffection of many with 
the executive, and gave rise to the two parties into which 
we find the political community divided at the present time. 
The supporters of Mr. Hamilton and the national bank, 
were styled federalists ; while Mr. Jefferson and those who 
opposed it, were denominated republicans. 

34. During the second term of Washington's adminis- 
tration, the United States were partially involved in difficul- 
ties, growing out of the convulsions of Europe. The 
French revolution had commenced, and that nation made 
certain demands on this country for assistance, while the 
feelings of the people were warmly enlisted on the side of 
France, and would have urged the nation into hostilities 
with England. The President, however, determined on a 
course of neutrality, and thus happily preserved the peace of 
the nation, although his policy met with much opposition. 
At the expiration of his second term, Washington having 
previously declined a re-election, in a valedictory address 
to the people, replete with maxims of the soundest policy 
and breathing the warmest sentiments of affection for his 
country, retired again to his residence at Mount Vernon, 
and was succeeded in office by John Adams, while Mr. 
Jefferson was chosen Vice-President. 

35. During Mr. Adams' administration, the menacing 
tone, and hostile attitude of the French Directory towards 
the United States, caused the American government to 
adopt measures of defense and retaliation. The navy was 
increased, and a provisional army raised, of which Gener- 
al Washington was appointed the commander-in-chief. — 
Authority was given for the capturing of French armed 
vessels ; this was followed by the capture of the French 
frigate IS Insurgent e, after a severe action, by the Ameri- 
can frigate Constitution. These decisive measures on the 
part of the United States, induced the French government to 
accede to an amicable adjustment of the dispute. The Re- 
public at this period, was destined to experience a severe loss 
by the death of General Washington. On the 14th of De- 
cember, he received a slight sprinkle of rain, and was seiz- 
ed in a few hours afterwards, with an inflammation of the 
throat, attended by a fever; he died on the following day 
at his residence at Mount Vernon, in the 68th year of his 
age. (See Biography.) 



UNITED STATES. 375 

36. For several years the country had been much agita- 
ted by the conflicting parties, which differed materially 
from each other in regard to the foreign relation of the 
country, and on various subjects of domestic policy. A 
commercial treaty with Great Britain, negotiated by Mr. 
Jay, in 179-1, was severely censured by the Republicans or 
Democrats, who accused the Federalists of an undue par- 
tiality for England, and were accused in turn, of a similar 
conduct towards France. Many of the measures of Mr. 
Adams' administration, both in relation to the Foreign and 
domestic policy, were highly unpopular. The acts which 
excited the most disaffection, were those of raising a stand- 
ing army, imposing a direct tax, and enacting the "alien 
and sedition laws." k change having taken place in the 
administration of the public affairs, the Republican party 
having gained the ascendancy, elevated Mr. Jefferson to 
the presidential chair at the expiration of Mr. Adams' first 
term. 

37. 1801. At the time when Mr. Jefferson was raised 
to the presidency, harmony subsisted between the United 
States and the great European powers. A new scene of 
vexation arose, and eventually a war succeeded, growing 
out of the piracies of the Barbary states. After several 
disputes were settled with Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, 
the bashaw of Tripoli demanded certain tributes, which 
the United States refused to pay. The refusal was imme- 
diately followed by the capture of several American ves- 
sels. In 1802, Commodore Dale, with three frigates and 
a sloop of war, was sent into the Mediterranean, in order 
to protect the American commerce. In the following year 
the Philadelphia, under the command of captain Brain- 
bridge, run upon a rock about five miles from Tripoli, and 
being assailed on all sides, and deprived of every means of 
assistance, she was compelled to strike her colors ; her offi- 
cers and men were made prisoners by the Tripolitans. The 
war finally terminated by a treaty in 1805. The other 
most striking events in the administration of Mr. Jefferson, 
were the purchase of Louisiana from the French, in 1803, 
for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars, two millions and 
a half of which were to be retained by the United States 
as a compensation for illegal captures made by the French ; 
the trial of Aaron Burr, under a charge of conspiracy, and 
an attempt to overthrow the government; he was finally 
acquitted ; and by the expedition of Lewis and Clark, who 
explored the Missouri river, and contiguous countries, 



376 UNITED STATES. 

crossed the Rocky Mountains, reached the head waters of 
the Columbia, and descended that river to the Pacific 
ocean. 

In 1809, Mr. Jefferson's second term of office having ex- 
pired, and being desirous of conforming to the example of 
General Washington, he declined a re-election. He was 
succeeded by James Madison, who had been a leading man 
in the late administration, and who pursued a similar course 
of policy. 



SECTION VL 
The Three Years' War. 

1. During the wars, that had for some time convulsed 
the continent of Europe, the United States endeavored to ob- 
serve neutrality towards the belligerent powers and peace- 
ably to maintain a commercial intercourse with them. In 
the May of 1806, the British government declared all the 
ports and rivers, from the Elbe in Germany to Brest in 
France, to be in a state of blockade, and that all neutral 
vessels trading with these ports, should be seized and con- 
demned. In November following, the emperor of France 
issued his Berlin Decree, prohibiting all intercourse with 
the British islands. This decree of the emperor was fol- 
lowed by the Orders of the British Council, by which all 
neutral vessels trading with France, were compelled to stop 
at a British port and pay a duty. In consequence of this, 
Buonaparte issued his Milan Decree, by which all vessels 
submitting to the British search, or consenting to pay any 
pecuniary exactions whatever, were confiscated. 

2. About this time, at the recommendation of Mr. Jef- 
ferson, Congress laid an embargo on all the shipping of the 
United States ; but the embargo was removed in the March 
of 1809, after it had remained in force about six months, 
and non-intercourse with France and England was substi- 
tuted. While the trade of the United States was thus re- 
stricted and harrassed by the belligerent powers of Europe, 
another species of injury and insult arose. This was the 
custom practiced by Great Britain, of searching American 
vessels on the high seas, and impressing from them such 
seamen as were supposed to be British deserters. The 



UNITED STATES. 377 

custom was subject to great abuse, from the difficulty of 
distinguishing between American and British seamen ; but 
there was moreover, strong reason to believe, that the Brit- 
ish officers were not always anxious to make the distinc- 
tion, and that in some instances, American citizens were 
compelled to serve in the British navy. 

3. Hitherto this custom had been confined to private ves- 
sels, but in 1807, it was stated that four seamen who had 
deserted from the British service, had entered on board the 
Chesapeake, an American frigate carrying 36 guns, under 
the command of Commodore Barron. Captain Hum- 
phreys, commanding the Leopard, an English frigate of 50 
guns, in compliance with an order from Admiral Burkley, 
followed the Chesapeake beyond the waters of the United 
States, and after demanding the deserters, fired a broadside 
upon the American frigate, by which four men were killed 
and sixteen wounded. The Chesapeake immediately struck 
her colors, and the four seamen were given up, although 
there were strong reasons for believing, that three of the 
number were native Americans. Commodore Barron, for 
neglect of duty, was suspended from the service for five 
years. 

4. This outrage produced a general indignation through- 
out the country. The British government disavowed the 
orders of Admiral Burkley, and removed him from that 
station ; but shortly afterwards appointed him to anoth- 
er of more importance. In 1809, James Madison suc- 
ceeded Mr. Jefferson in the office of president. Madison, 
who had been a leading man in the late administration, 
pursued a course of policy similar to that of his predeces- 
sor. In April, arrangements were made with Mr. Erskine, 
the British minister, by which the American government, 
again renewed the trade with England ; but these arrange- 
ments were subsequently disavowed by the British cabinet. 
In the succeeding negotiations, Mr. Jackson having made 
use of some offensive language, Mr. Madison declined hav- 
ing any further correspondence with him. In this state of 
things, an unfortunate encounter took place between the 
President, an American vessel, and the Little Belt, an 
English sloop of war, which tended to increase the un- 
friendly feelings, which had for some time existed between 
the two countries. 

5. 1812. The prospect of an amicable adjustment of 
the difficulties between the United States and Great Britain, 
having been despaired of, the President, on the 1st of June, 

16* 



378 UNITED STATES. 

sent a message to Congress, strongly recommending to that 
body, a declaration of war. The principal grounds for this 
measure, as stated in the message, were the impressment 
of American seamen by the British ; the blockading the 
ports of their enemies, and suspicions that the Indians had 
been instigated to acts of hostilities by the British agents. 
The bill for declaring war passed the house of representa- 
tives, by a majority of 30 votes; in the senate, it passed 
by 19 to 13, and on the 18th of June, the day after it pass- 
ed the senate, it was signed by the president. 

6. The minority in Congress opposed the declaration of 
war, on the ground that it was unnecessary and impolitic; 
therefore they protested against the measure. A consider- 
able portion of the people supported the views of the mi- 
nority; the war in consequence, Was prosecuted with much 
less vigor and energy than it might, had there been more 
unanimity in its favor. The first military operation, after 
the declaration of war, was the invasion of Canada, by 
General Hull, on the 12th of July, at the head of 2,000 
men, but on the 16th of August, he disgracefully surren- 
dered his whole army into the hands of the British. Hull 
was subsequently tried and found guilty of cowardice and 
neglect of duty, and was sentenced to be shot; but in con- 
sideration of his age and revolutionary services, he was re- 
commended to mercy, and the punishment of death was 
withdrawn by the president. 

7. A second invasion of Canada was attempted by Gen- 
eral Van Rensselaer, who crossed the Niagara in Novem- 
ber, with about 1,000 men, and made an attack upon the 
British at Queenstown. After a severe action, the enemy 
was driven from the field ; but being strongly re-inforced, 
they returned to the attack, and owing to the fact of the 
militia positively refusing to obey the orders of their Gen- 
eral, the Americans were defeated, and a part of their army 
made prisoners of war. 

On the 19th of August, the frigate Constitution, com- 
manded by Captain Hull, captured the British frigate Guer- 
riere, after an action of 30 minutes. The loss of the 
Guerriere was 15 killed, and 64 wounded, that of the Con- 
stitution 7 killed and 7 wounded. In October, the frigate 
United States, commanded by Captain Decatur, took the 
British frigate Macedonia, and in the following month, the 
British sloop Frolic, was captured by the Wasp, command- 
ed by Captain Jones ; but the Wasp was shortly afterwards 
taken by a British seventy-four. In December, the Con- 



UNITED STATES. 379 

stitution, then under the command of Captain Brainbridge, 
captured the British frigate Java. 

8. 1813. The campaign of this year was attended with 
various success. Towards the end of January, a detach- 
ment of about 800 men, under General Winchester, was 
surprised and defeated by the British and Indians, under 
General Proctor, at Frenchtown, on the Raisin ; and the 
greater part of those who surrendered to the enemy, amount- 
ing to about 500, were inhumanly massacred by the In- 
dians. In April, York, the capital of Upper Canada, was 
taken by a detachment of Americans, under General Pike, 
who was killed by the explosion of a magazine ; the Brit- 
ish lost on that occasion, about 700 men in killed, wound- 
ed, and captured. In May an attack was made on Sack' 
ett's Harbor by the British, under Sir George Prevost, but 
they were repulsed with considerable loss, by the Ameri- 
cans, under General Brown. About the same time, the 
Americans took Fort George; but the progress of their 
victories suffered a momentary check, by the capture of a 
considerable force under Generals Chandler and Winder, 
who were taken by surprise, by the British, under General 
Vincent. 

9. But the most brilliant achievement of this year, was 
Perry's victory on Lake Erie, which took place on the 
10th of September. The British fleet consisted of 6 ves- 
sels, carrying 63 guns ; that of the Americans, of 9 with 
56 guns. For some time the contest appeared doubtful. 
The flag ship of the Americans, at the commencement of 
the action, suffered severely, and being in a sinking con- 
dition, Perry descended into an open boat, and passing 
through a shower of balls, transported his flag to another 
vessel. After a tremendous conflict of three hours, victory 
declared in favor of the Americans, who reduced the Brit- 
ish fleet to almost a total wreck. After this victory, Gen- 
eral Harrison embarked his forces, and landed on the Can- 
ada shore, and on the 5th of October, defeated the British 
at the battle of the Thames, under General Proctor. In 
this battle the celebrated Indian chief, Tecumseh, was kill- 
ed by Colonel Johnson. 

10. Little more was done this year towards the conquest 
of Canada. General Wilkinson made an attack on Wil- 
liamsburg, but was repulsed with considerable loss. Dur- 
ing this year the British fleet, under Admiral Cockburn, 
committed various depredations in the south. The Eng- 
lish, however, were more fortunate on the ocean during this 



380 UNITED STATES. 

season than they had been previously. In February, the 
Hornet, commanded by captain Lawrence, captured the 
Peacock, a British sloop of war. In the course of the 
summer, captain Lawrence was appointed to the command 
of the Chesapeake, which was captured by the Shannon, 
commanded by captain Broke. 

11. 1814. The campaign of this year was distinguish- 
ed by several important actions on the frontiers. On the 
12th of July the Americans, under General Brown, took 
Fort Erie, and shortly afterwards, defeated the British un- 
der General Drummond, after an obstinate engagement, at 
Chippewa; and the 25th of the same month, Generals 
Brown and Scott, at the well contested battle of Bridge- 
water, defeated the British, commanded by Generals Drum- 
mond and Rial ; the loss of the enemy was 900 men, in 
killed, wounded, and prisoners. In September, a combin- 
ed attack was made on Plattsbuig, by a British squadron, 
carrying 95 guns, and 1,050 men, commanded by Commo- 
dore Downie, and a land force under Sir George Prevost. 
But the naval force was totally destroyed by the American 
fleet, Commanded by commodore Macdonough. During 
the engagement of the fleets, the British were effectually 
repulsed in their attack on the forts of Plattsburg by the 
Americans, under General Macomb. The whole loss of 
the British on this occasion, amounted to 2,500 men, while 
the total loss of the Americans, on land and water, did not 
exceed 231. 

12. In the month of August, a British fleet of sixty sail, 
under Admiral Cochrane, entered the Chesapeake and land- 
ed a force of 6,000 men, commanded by General Boss, on 
the banks of the Patuxent, about 40 miles from Washing- 
ton. The British general immediately commenced his 
march towards the capital ; but at Bladensburg he met with 
a momentary repulse. At this point, the Americans under 
General Winder, had assembled to oppose his progress, 
and a slight engagement followed. At the commencement 
of the action, however, the American militia fled, leaving 
Commodore Barney, with a few eighteen pounders and 
about 400 marines, to sustain the whole weigiit of the con- 
flict. Barney was at length wounded and taken prisoner. 
After this the British hastened to Washington, which they 
entered the same evening, burnt the capitoi, the President's 
house, and other public buildings, and retired without mo- 
lestation. 



UNITED STATES. 381 

13. About a fortnight after this event, a combined attack 
was made on the city of Baltimore, by the British fieet of 
50 sail, under Admiral Cochrane, and a land force of 7,000 
men under the command of General Ross. On the morn- 
ing of the 12th of September, they effected a landing at 
North Point, about 14 miles below the city. General 
Strieker was detached with about 3,500 men, chiefly mili- 
tia, to oppose their advance. General Ross, having pre- 
ceded his army with a small reconnoitering party, was 
shot through the breast by one of the American riflemen, 
and falling into the arms of his aid-de-camp, he expired in 
a few minutes. The command then devolved upon Colonel 
Brook, who led on the attack. After maintaining his pos- 
sition for an hour and a half against a great superiority of 
numbers, General Strieker drew off his men and retired to 
Worthington Mills, about half a mile in advance of the 
main body. In the mean time, a furious assault was made 
upon Fort McHenry, by a discharge of bombs and rockets 
from the British squadron. But after the bombardment had 
continued for 25 hours, the attempt was abandoned, and the 
fleet having taken on board the forces under Colonel Brook, 
moved down the bay. 

14. Up to this period, the British had discovered no dis- 
position to treat with commissioners of the United States ; 
but the intelligence of the defeat of their army at Platts- 
burg, gave a new turn to the negotiation; and a treaty of 
peace was signed at Ghent, on the 24th of December, 
1814. 

While the negotiation was in progress, a large armament 
had been dispatched, under the command of Sir Edward 
Packenham, for the purpose of making an attack upon the 
city of New Orleans. Fortunately for the city, which was 
in a very bad state of defense, General Jackson, the com- 
mander-in-chief of the forces in the southern district, arriv- 
ed there on the 2d of December from Mobile. His pre- 
sence was immediately felt, by the confidence which it in- 
spired, and by the unanimity with which the people se- 
conded his prompt arrangements. 

15. The British, after enduring incredible fatigue and dif- 
ficulties, at length succeeded in reaching the main entrench- 
ment of the Americans, which had been thrown up for the 
defense of the city. This they determined to take by an 
assault. Accordingly, on the 8th of January, 1815, they 
advanced to the attack, but were repulsed with immense 
slaughter by the Americans under General Jackson. In 



382 UNITED STATES. 

this memorable engagement, the British lost 700 killed, and 
1,400 wounded, and 500 prisoners. Generals Packenham 
and Gibbs, were mortally wounded. The loss on the part 
of the Americans is said to have amounted to only 7 killed 
and 6 wounded. This was the last important event of the 
v/ar ; the news of the treaty of peace, which arrived short- 
ly after, put an end to further hostilities. 

16. In the treaty of Ghent, no allusion is made to the 
causes of the war. "Security against future egression," 
as Mr. Grimshaw observes, "rests on a much firmer basis 
than the provisions of the most solemn treaty. Great 
Britain has been taught to appreciate the strength of the re- 
public. She will read in the history of the late struggle, 
the most convincing arguments against the invasion of neu- 
tral rights." 

17. Mr. Madison, having filled the office of President 
for two successive terms, was succeeded in 1817, by James 
Monroe. During the administration of Monroe, Florida 
was ceded to the United States by Spain, and erected into 
a territorial government in 1822. Mr. Monroe was suc- 
ceeded in 1825, by John Quincy Adams, whose adminis- 
tration for four years was not marked by any events of great 
importance. This year was rendered memorable for the 
visit of General La Fayette to the United States. Before 
his departure for France, Congress voted him the sum of 
200,000 dollars and a township of land, as a remuneration 
for his services during the revolutionary war, and as lasting 
testimony of their gratitude. On the 4th of July, 1826, 
while the nation was celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of 
its independence, John Adams died at Quincy in Massa- 
chusetts, in the 91st year of his age, and on the same day, 
Thomas Jefferson expired at Monticello, in Virginia, hav- 
ing completed his 83d year. 

18. In 1829, General Andrew Jackson succeeded Mr. 
Adams, as President of the United States, and in his first 
message to Congress, he called the attention of that body 
to the Bank of the United States, the charter of which 
was about to expire. In the spring of 1832, a bill passed 
both houses for re-chartering the Bank, with some new 
modifications and restrictions. The bill, however, was 
vetoed by the president, who, in his message returning the 
bill, declared the Bank to be, in his opinion, inexpedient 
and unconstitutional, and announced his firm determination 
never to sanction by his approval, the continuance of that 
institution, or the re-establishment of any other on similar 



UNITED STATES. 383 

principles. General Jackson was succeeded in the presi- 
dency in 1837, by Martin Van Buren, who held the office 
for four years. His administration was particularly distin- 
guished by a treaty with the Sioux Indians, and also a treaty 
with the Winnebagoes, by which they agreed to relinquish 
all their land east of the Mississippi ; in consideration of 
which, the United States government agreed to pay them 
the sum of $2,500,000. 

19. On the 4th of March, 1841, General William Henry 
Harrison, was inaugurated President of the United States, 
but died on the 4th of the following April. In consequence 
of his decease, the Vice-President, John Tyler, was inau- 
gurated in his place, according to a provision of the Con- 
stitution. 



THE 
CHRISTIAN CHURCH 



SECTION I. 

From the Birth of Christ to the triumph of Christianity, 
in the reign of Constantine, the first Christian Em- 
peror, <ft.l).3l2. 

1. In order to render this compendium more complete, 
it has been thought quite expedient to add a short history 
of the Christian Church, or of Christianity, from its first 
promulgation to the present time. This interesting portion 
of history embraces a period of more than eighteen centu- 
ries, and may be divided into three separate portions. 

The iirst division extends from the birth of Christ to the 
triumph of Christianity, when it became the religion of the 
Roman empire, under the reign of Constantine the Great, 
A. D. 312. 

The second division extends from the reign of Constan- 
tine to the Reformation, A. D. 1517; and the third, from 
the Reformation to the present time. 

2. At a time when the Roman empire bad reached the 
meridian of its greatness ; when every nation, accessible 
to its arms, had yielded submission to its power; when 
rival monarches and contending chieftains had ceased their 
strife, and the troubled elements of war, which had for ages 
convulsed the world, had sunk to repose under the mild, 
reign of Augustus Caesar, Jesus Christ, the Prince of 
Peace, was born at Bethlehem, in Judea. 

At the time when this remarkable event took place, an 
expectation universally prevailed, even among the pagan 
nations, that some extraordinary personage was about to 
appear in the world. The Jews, in particular, were anx- 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 385 

iously expecting the coming of the Messiah, whose birth 
had been long foretold by the prophets ; but they very er- 
roneously imagined that he would appear as a temporal 
prince, clothed with worldly splendor and power ; as a 
mighty conqueror, who would deliver their nation from the 
dominion of the Romans. 

3. The Pharisees, who were the most powerful of the 
three sects,* into which the Jews were at that time divided, 
presided in the schools, and were the chief doctors of the 
law. They received all the books of the Old Testament, 
to which they added their traditions or oral law, which was 
regarded of high authority. They affected the appearance 
of great sanctity, but being destitute of the true spirit of 
religion, they are chargeable with the grossest hypocrisy; 
they looked for a Messiah, only as a great deliverer, who 
should rescue Judea from the yoke of a foreign power, and 
subject the whole world to the iVlosaic institutions. It is 
not surprising then that the manner of our Saviour's appear- 
ance on earth, disappointed the expectation of the Jews. 
No royal palace designates the consecrated spot, where the 
long expected Messiah first appeared among the children of 
men ; a lowly manger is the place of his nativity ; Joseph 
his reputed father, is an humble carpenter; and Mary, his 
virginal mother, though descended from the royal house of 
David, is undistinguished among the daughters of Judea. 

4. The life of our divine Saviour, was one of labor and 
suffering; his death was finally consummated upon an ig- 
nominious cross. He had chosen for his disciples, men of 
the humblest walks of life. To twelve of these, styled 
apostles, he gave a divine commission to propagate his heav^ 
enly doctrine in these remarkable words: "To me all 
power is given in heaven and earth ; Go ye, therefore, and 
teach all nations; baptizing them in the name of the Father, 
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; teaching them to 
observe all things, whatsoever I have commanded you ; and 
behold 1 am with you all days, even to the consummation of 
the world."! 

*The other two sects, were the Saddxtcees and Essences. The Sad- 
ducees were unbelievers in religion; they admitted the authority of 
the books of Moses, but denied the sacred character of the other parts 
of the Old Testament ; they rejected the doctrine of a future life and 
the existence of angels and spirits. The Essenees, were a class of men 
who took no concern in the affairs, of state, but professed to live in re- 
tirement and to attempt to purify the soul by abstinence, silence and 
mortification. 

fSt. Matt. chap. 28. 



386 CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 

5. Thus divinely commissioned, the apostles, on the day 
of Pentecost, being imbued with the gifts of the Holy 
Ghost, enter upon their mission, and in the streets of Jeru- 
salem, promulgate the law of Jesus Christ; and so aston- 
ishing were the fruits of their labors, that no less than 
3,000 person were converted by the first sermon of St. 
Peter. This success did not fail to awaken in the breast 
of the Jewish rulers, a spirit of jealousy ; they dreaded the 
total subversion of the Mosaic law, and left nothing undone 
to retard the labors of the apostles. A violent persecution 
followed ; during which St. Stephen, one of the seven dea- 
cons, fell a sacrifice to their fury, and is honored as the first 
martyr of the Christian church. The most active of the 
persecutors of the Christians, was a young man named 
Said, who not satisfied with the cruelties he had committed 
at Jerusalem, obtained permission of the high priest, to 
pursue them even to the adjacent towns. With this view 
he set out to Damascus ; but on his road, he was suddenly 
struck blind and cast upon the ground, at the same time he 
heard a voice, saying to him : " Saul, Saul! why dost 
thou persecute me.'' His attendants raised him up, and 
conducted him to the town ; he was there baptized by a holy 
priest named Jlnanias, and Saul from being a violent per- 
secutor of the Christian church, became one of its most 
illustrious apostles, and assumed the name of Paul. 

6. In the mean time, the twelve apostles having com- 
posed a symbol of their belief, commonly called the apos- 
tles' creed, and having appointed St. James, the son of 
Jilpheus, as the first bishop of Jerusalem, set out to an- 
nounce the truths of Christianity to the pagan world. They 
confirmed the doctrines they taught by the most astonish- 
ing miracles ; they healed the sick ; raised the dead to life ; 
and being endowed with the gift of tongues, they were en- 
abled to speak the language of the different nations through 
which they travelled. The rapidity with which Christian- 
ity was propagated will appear extraordinary, when we re- 
flect that its founder belonged to a nation undistinguished 
for power or importance ; that he suffered a public and ig- 
nominious death; that his apostles, with few exceptions, 
were poor and illiterate, destitute of power or influence ; 
that the religion which they preached, held out no promise 
of temporal goods, no worldly pleasures, honors or riches ; 
but on the contrary, often exposed its professors to scorn 
and reproach, persecution and temporal loss; finally, that 
it had to contend not only with the long established super- 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 387 

stition and popular dogmas of pagan warship, but also with 
the prejudices, passions, and vices of the world. 

7. This rapid success under these opposing circumstan- 
ces, can be no other than the work of a divine hand. To 
the divine power of its founder alone, must we ascribe the 
wonderful triumph of the gospel. Allured by no earthly- 
advantage, subdued by no other force than that of truth, the 
learned and the ignorant, the Jew and the Gentile, the 
Greek and the Barbarian, meekly bend their necks to the 
yoke of Christ, shake off their ancient prejudices, and pro- 
fess themselves the followers of a crucified God. 

8. In a few years, we find that the light of Christianity 
has spread its cheering rays over the various provinces of 
the Roman empire. St. Peter visited the towns of Sama- 
ria, Judea and Syria, and first fixed his episcopal chair at 
Antioch. He afterwards traversed the provinces of Asia 
Minor, and preached to the Jews in Pontus, Galatia, Cap- 
padocia, and Bithynia; he visited Rome about the year 44, 
to which city he removed his episcopal seat, wisely judg- 
ing, that from the capital, the light of Christianity would 
spread more rapidly through the empire. St. Paul, who 
had lately been introduced to the apostles, was consecrated 
bishop, and sent to carry the glad tidings of Christianity 
to the Gentile nations. Passing through the provinces of 
.Asia, Pamphyiia, and Phrygia, he converted thousands to 
the Christian religion; from thence he visited Greece, a 
country which had been long renowned for science, for elo- 
quence and for arts. Here the apostle resolved to introduce 
a more sublime and precious knowledge, the knowledge 
of the true God. His labors were crowned with success ; 
idolatry fell before the power of his heavenly eloquence ; 
nourishing churches arose in the cities of Corinth, Philip- 
pi, Thessalonica, Athens and Ephesus. From Greece he 
directed his course to Rome, and carried the knowledge of 
Christ, into the very apartments of Nero's palace. 

9. Notwithstanding the many shining virtues, which 
adorned the lives of the first professors of Christianity, 
they were not however, exempt from the frailties of men. 
A misguided zeal on the part of many of the Jewish con- 
verts at Antioch, led them to propose as matter of obliga- 
tion, that the Gentiles who became Christians, should sub- 
mit to the law of circumcision, if they hoped to attain sal- 
vation. The proposition gave rise to warm disputes; char- 
ity and religion were likely to suffer, when the affair was 
happily settled by a council held at Jerusalem, St. Paul 



388 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



and Barnabas repaired to that city to be present on the oc- 
casion. St. Peter opened the discussion, and after relating 
the wonders which God had wrought through his ministry 
among the Gentiles, concluded that no superfluous burden 
of the ancient law, ought to be imposed upon them. St. 
James concluded the debate by expressing his approbation 
of the decision given by St. Peter. 

10. In this, the first council of the Christian church, the 
apostles established a judicial form of proceeding, which 
the church in after ages followed, in deciding all questions 
that relate to faith and discipline. A dispute, important in 
its consequences, had arisen among the faithful; private 
authority, even that of St. Paul, is unable to calm into si- 
lence the contending parties ; recourse is had to the pastors 
of the church assembled in council ; the points in dispute 
are regularly discussed ; a decree is formed upon the sub- 
ject; the faithful bow in acquiescence to the decision; the 
cause of disagreement is removed ; harmony and peace are 
again restored. 

11. After the death of Festus, the Roman governor, by 
whose authority the violence of the Jews had been restrain- 
ed, the flame of persecution was again renewed against the 
Christians in the Holy City. St. James, the bishop of 
Jerusalem, surnamed the Just, on account of his exem- 
plary piety and charity, fell a victim to their fury. Being 
summoned before the council of the Sanhedrim, he was 
ordered to declare his opinion concerning Jesus Christ; 
but in order that the declaration might be more public, they 
commanded the apostle to ascend the battlements of the 
temple, and from thence declare his sentiments to the sur- 
rounding multitude. No sooner had the venerable confes- 
sor appeared on the summit, and proclaimed the divinity 
of Jesus Christ, than he was precipitated from the battle- 
ment, and perished amidst a furious discharge of stones 
from the hands of the populace, while in imitation of his 
divine Master, he prayed for his persecutors, and besought 
God to forgive them, because they knew not what they 
did. : 

12. Although the faithful had suffered in many places, 
both from the Jews and Gentiles, they had not as yet, un- 
dergone any general persecution. The first of the Roman 
emperors, who armed the sovereign of the state against the 
professors of Christianity, was Nero, whose cruelty was 
only surpassed by his' moral depravity. In his wild ex- 
travagance, he set fire to the city of Rome, that he might 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 389 

lave the vain satisfaction of re-building it on a more mag- 
lifieent plan. But finding that his excesses created against 
lim, the murmurs and disaffection of the people, he artful- 
y contrived to throw the odium upon the Christians, whom 
ie openly accused as the authors of the late conflagration, 
md published a decree, which made it a capital offense to 
profess the Christian religion. Revolting w 7 ere the cruel- 
ies exercised against the unoffending professors of Chris- 
tianity. Some were covered with the skins of wild beasts 
and devoured by dogs ; others were braced in tunics steep- 
3d in pitch, and placed at certain distances, then set on fire 
;o light the streets by night. Among the many who suf- 
fered on this occasion, were the two illustrious apostles, 
St. Peter and St. Paid. They were confined for nine 
nonths in a loathsome prison, at the foot of the capitol, be- 
fore they were called to receive the crown of martyrdom. 
3t. Peter was crucified with his head downwards, but St. 
Paul, being a Roman citizen, had the honor of dying by 
;he sword. 

13. The second persecution commenced during the reign 
sf the emperor Domitian, about the year 95, during which, 
t is computed, that 40,000 Christians received the crown of 
nartyrdom. The most illustrious sufferer was St, John, 
he Evangelist. He resided chiefly at Ephesus, in Ionia; 
but on information being lodged against him, he was cited 
by the emperor to appear at Rome, and on account of his 
faith, he was condemned to be cast alive into a caldron of 
boiling oil. The sentence was carried into execution before 
the Latin Gate ; but by the miraculous power of God, the 
holy martyr came forth from the caldron, not only unhurt, 
but more fresh and vigorous than before. The emperor 
having failed in his attempt to deprive him of life, banished 
him to the Isle of Patmos, where the saint was favored 
with those heavenly visions, recorded in his book of Rev- 
elations. On the death of Domitian, in the year 96, St. 
John again returned to Ephesus. At this early period of 
Christianity, the church had the mortification to see many 
of her children fall from their first faith, and teach errone- 
ous doctrines. Of these, the most conspicuous were Ebion 
and Nicholas of Antioch. Among other errors, they denied 
the divinity of Jesus Christ, and asserted the necessity of 
observing the ceremonies of the Mosaic law. To silence the 
heretical declaimers, St, John, at the request of the bishops 
of Asia, wrote his gospel, which he commences in a strain 
of sublime eloquence. 



300 CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 

14. The third persecution. After the death of Domi- 
tian, the peace of the church was restored, under the mild 
reign of Nerva ; but the reign of that prince was of shorl 
duration, and on the accession of Trajan to the imperial 
throne, the sanguinary edicts of Nero and Domitian were 
again renewed, and again the cities and provinces flowed 
with Christian blood. The younger Pliny, who was then 
governor of Bithynia, in a letter to the emperor, bears am- 
ple testimony to the exemplary lives of the Christians, and 
tells us that so great was their number, that they filled the 
fields, the towns, and villages; that on his arrival in the 
province, he could scarcely find a man of whom to pur- 
chase victims for the pagan altars. The most illustrious oi 
those who suffered for the faith, on this occasion, were St. 
Clement, bishop of Rome ; St. Ignatius of Antioch, anc 
St. Simeon of Jerusalem. Simeon was nearly related to 
our divine Saviour, and had reached the 120th year of his 
age. 

15. The fourth persecution commenced about the year 
168, under the reign of Marcus Aurelius, during which, 
thousands sealed with their blood, the doctrines of Christi- 
anity. Among the most illustrious of those who suffered, 
was St. Po!ycarp, the venerable bishop of Smyrna. 

The fifth persecution commenced in the year 202. From 
the death of Aurelius, the Christians had enjoyed the free 
exercise of their religion, under various emperors, to the 
reign of Severus, who was thought even favorable to 
Christianity, during the first seven years of his administra- 
tion. At this period, seemingly without any provocation, 
he published against them a most sanguinary edict, forbid- 
ding them to hold their religious assemblies, and to profess 
the name of Christ. A dreadful persecution followed, par- 
ticularly in Egypt, in Gaul, and Africa, where thousands 
sealed the profession of their faith by the affusion of their 
blood. 

16. The sixth persecution was commenced under the 
reign of Maximin, who had reached the imperial throne 
by imbruing his hand in the blood of his predecessor. The 
emperor pointed not his shafts against the great body of 
the Christians, who had now become too numerous to be 
marked out for slaughter, but directed his malice against 
the pastors of the church. With the death of Maximin, 
the persecution ceased in 240, after it had lasted three years. 
The seventh persecution of the Christians, was published 
on the accession of Decius to the throne. It was the most 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 391 

dreadful hitherto experienced ; prisons, stripes, fire, wild 
beasts, melted wax, boiling pitch, racks and iron hooks to 
tear the flesh from the bones were employed to torment and 
to kill. The most distinguished of those who suffered, 
during this persecution, were Fabianus, the bishop of 
Rome, Alexander, of Jerusalem, and Balytas, of Antioc-h. 
The eighth persecution was commenced under the emperor 
Valerian, who, in the beginning of his reign, had shown 
the greatest lenity towards the Christians. With a view of 
rendering the gods propitious to his arms, on the eve of an 
expedition against the Persians, he published a violent edict 
against the professors of the Christian name. Among the 
first who suffered, were St. Stephen, bishop of Rome, and 
St. Scxtus his immediate successor, with the illustrious 
martyr St. Lawrence, and also St. Cyprian, of Carthage. 

17. To gratify the senate and people of Rome, the em- 
peror Aurelian, published a sanguinary edict against the 
Christians, about the year 274 ; but the hand of an assassin 
put an end to his life, before he had the satisfaction of see- 
ing it properly carried into effect; yet in several places, 
many received the crown of martyrdom. 

The tenth and last persecution, took place about the year 
302. The church after enjoying a general tranquility for 
thirty years, was again doomed to experience another san- 
guinary persecution, under Dioclesian and his colleagues in 
the empire. For some time, Dioclesian rejected the mea- 
sures on political motives, until he was at length overcome 
by the soothsayers, who declared that the empire could 
never flourish, as long as the impious, meaning the Chris- 
tians, were suffered to exist. The deluded emperor weak- 
ly yielded to their persuasions, and published an edict for 
the total extirpation of the Christian religion. This violent 
decree well suited the sanguinary dispositions of his col- 
leagues, Maximibien and Gal arias, whose respective pro- 
vinces were deluged in Christian blood. In Britain and 
Gaul, under the mild administration of Constantius, the 
horrors of the persecution were less severe ; still the au- 
thority of Constantius was insufficient in some instances, 
to restrain the more superstitious of the magistrates ; hence, 
even in Britain we find St. Albon, and also St. Angulus, 
bishop of London, dying for the faith ; and in Gaul, St. 
Quintin and others, with the whole Theban legion, barbar- 
ously sacrificed to gratify an inferior officer of state. 

18. At this period, when the power of darkness seemed 
to threaten the total extirpation of the Christian name, we 



392 CHRISTIAN CHURCH, 

are called to look for the rise of that coming dawn, which 
is to usher in a brighter and happier era: when the church 
is to triumph over the ruins of pagan superstition ; when 
the cross is to adorn the diadem of the Csesars. By a sud- 
den revolution in the state, or rather by the providence of 
God, whose superintending power directs the destinies of 
nations, Constantine, having triumphed over air his com- 
petitors, was placed in the undisputed possession of the 
imperial throne. The first care of this enlightened prince, 
was to declare himself the protector of Christianity, and to 
publish an edict, by which all the penal restraints respect- 
ing religion, were removed, and full liberty allowed to every 
one to profess and exercise that form of religious worship 
he should think proper to adopt. To break the force of 
prejudice, which time and custom had thrown around the 
religion of the empire, Constantine wisely judged that leni- 
ent measures were the most likely to effect his object; and 
he concluded, that to overthrow the system of error, noth- 
ing more was requisite than to grant protection to the true 
religion, and to let the wisdom of her doctrines and the 
purity of her precepts, appear in open view. 

19. To remedy the evils occasioned by the edicts of his 
predecessors, he recalled the exiles ; restored to the Chris- 
tians their places of worship, and treated their ministers 
with the deepest respect. To the bishop of Rome, he 
granted the Lateran Palace, as the place of his future res- 
idence, and the adjoining palace was converted into a 
Christian temple, now called the church of St. John of 
Lateran. 

Thus was the church finally triumphant, after undergoing 
the ordeal of ten sanguinary persecutions. A change with 
respect to their religion, so sudden and so unexpected, in- 
spired the Christians with the prospect of joy for the pres- 
ent, and the most flattering anticipations for the future. 



SECTION II. 

From the triumph of Christ anity to the Reformation, 
from Jl. D, 312 to 1517. 

1. Under the protection of Constantine, Christianity 
widely extended and rapidly increased ; magnificent chur- 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 393 

ch'es arose where pagan temples had stood for ages ; the 
storm of persecution had ceased ; the bishops no longer lay 
under any restraint in the public exercise of their pastoral 
functions ; the people hastened to embrace a religion sanc- 
tioned by their sovereign. Such was the pleasing prospect 
of affairs, when the church beheld her peace interrupted 
and prosperity marred, not indeed by the hand of a pagan 
persecutor, but from the undutiful conduct of her own chil- 
dren. 

2. Arias, a turbulent priest of Alexandria, had aspired 
to the episcopal chair of that city, but being defeated in his 
pretensions, he began to assail the doctrines of the church, 
and openly denied the divinity of Christ, and asserted that 
the Son of God, was not equal to his Father in nature and 
substance. At this doctrine, the faithful were shocked and 
scandalized ; the pastors were alarmed ; and in order to 
check the progress of error, and to define the doctrine of 
the church on the point in question, the convocation of a 
general council was deemed expedient. Accordingly, dur- 
ing the month of June, in the year 325, the famous coun- 
cil of Nice was convened. It was composed of three hun- 
dred and eighteen bishops, besides a much greater number 
of inferior ecclesiastics. Osius, the venerable bishop of 
Cordova, in Spain, with two priests, presided in the name 
of St. Silvester, bishop of Rome, who was unable to attend 
in person. Constantine also, with many of his chief of- 
ficers of state, was present on the occasion. After mature 
deliberation, the fathers with exception of five bishops, 
unanimously condemned the opinions of Arius, as erroneous 
and contrary to what had been taught by the apostles and 
their immediate successors, and published the Nicene Creed, 
which should stand to all succeeding ages as the test of or- 
thodox belief in the divinity of Jesus Christ. The ques- 
tion of faith being thus finally decided, the council proceed- 
ed to enact certain canons, for the regulation of ecclesiasti- 
cal discipline. The uniform celebration of Easter-day was 
fixed, and directed to be universally kept in future, on the 
first Sunday after the first full moon that follows the vernal 
equinox. Before the council separated, a synodical epistle 
was drawn up, and directed to St. Silvester, who is styled 
in that document, the blessed pope of Rome, requesting 
that he would confirm its decrees. 

3. Arianism was checked for the present, but not sup- 
pressed, it continued to find many patrons and supporters 
among those whose rank and power gave it considerable 

17 



394 CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 

influence. Constantius, the son and successor of C<M- 
stantine, with several subsequent emperors, favored the 
Arian heresy, and under their respective reigns, the ortho- 
dox portion of the church, experienced a series of persecu- 
tion, little inferior in point of cruelty and violence to those 
carried on, when pagan sovereigns swayed the imperial 
scepter. Under the reign of Theodoshis the Great, peace 
was again restored to the church ; and in order to remedy 
the evils, and correct the general confusion of doctrine that 
pervaded the east, occasioned by the violence which pre- 
vailed for nearly forty years, a second general council was 
convened at Constantinople in the month of May, A. D. 
381. 

4. This eonnci] consisted of about. 150 orthodox bishops, 
besides 30 of the Macedonian party. The Macedonians 
who took their name from Macedonius, the leader of their 
sect, not only maintained the Arian heresy, but also denied 
the divine procession of the Holy Ghost. The fathers of 
She council condemned, in the most explicit terms, this new 
error, declaring the Holy Ghost to be, *' The Lord and 
Giver of life, who, with the Father and the Son, is equally 
adored and glorified." Among the persons most distin- 
guished for their learning and sanctity, we find the names 
of St. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria; St. Basil, the 
Great, bishop of Csesarea ; St. Gregory Nazianzen, no 
less distinguished for'his eloquence than for the holiness of 
his life ; St. Gregory, bishop of Nyssa, and St. Cyril, 
bishop of Jerusalem. To these may be added the names 
of St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan ; St. Jerome, the learned 
secretary of St. Damasus, bishop of Rome, and finally the 
illustrious St. Chrysostom, who died in the early part of 
the succeeding century. 

5. As the Arian heresy gradually declined, the schism of 
Donatus began to rise on its ruins. The first appearance 
of this schism is dated from about the middle of the fourth 
century. Donatus, a turbulent prelate, with several other 
bishops, contested the validity of the election and consecra- 
tion of Cecilian, bishop of Carthage, and even went so far 
as to pass sentence of deposition against him, and to elect 
Majorian in his place. In defiance of all authority, they 
supported this violent measure, and on the death of Major- 
ian, they elected one Donatus, from whom the party pro- 
perly derives its name. To schism, they added heresy; 
asserting that God the Son was less than the father, and 
greater than the Holy Ghost; that the church had failed. 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 395 

401(1 that with them alone. existed true virtue. Towards the 
close of the fourth and the beginning of the fifth century, 
they had greatly multiplied; and with their numbers their 
violence also increased ; they denounced open hostilities 
against the orthodox clergy, drove them by force from their 
churches, profaned the sacred vessels and overturned the 
altars. After the great conference, held at Carthage during 
the year 411, at which St. Austin, the learned bishop of 
Hippo, in the most satisfactory manner, refuted the argu- 
ments of the Donatists, we find that the heresy rapidly de- 
clined ; but before it had entirely disappeared, the Pelagian 
heresy grew into being. 

6. Pelagius, the progenitor of this new sect, by birth a 
Britain, was a monk of Bangor, in Wales, from which 
place he went to Rome during the fourth century. He de- 
nied the existence of original sin in the soul of man, and 
rejected the necessity of divine grace for the merit of good 
works, contending that Adam by sinning, only effected 
himself, and that his descendants are now born in that state 
in which they would have been, had he never sinned. 
These errors were repeatedly condemned by several local 
councils held about this period, and refuted by the unan- 
swerable arguments of the £reat St. Austin. 

7. About the year 428, the Nestorian heresy was first 
broached at Constantinople. Nestorius from whom the 
heresy takes its name, was at that time bishop of that city. 
In opposition to the Catholic doctrine, he taught that there 
were two distinct persons in Jesus Christ, namely that of 
God and man, joined together by a moral union in such a 
manner, that the God-head dwelt in the humanity merely 
as a temple. Hence he denied the Incarnation, or that 
God was made man, and asserted that the blessed Virgin 
Mary, ought not to be styled the mother of God, but the 
mother of the man Christ, whose humanity was only the 
temple of the divinity. This strange doctrine, delivered 
for the first time from the pulpit of the great church of St. 
Sophia, so shocked the audience, that they closed their ears 
and rushed from the holy place. These errors of Nesto- 
rius, were condemned by the third general council held at 
Ephesus, A. D. 431. 

8. About twenty years after this event, the fourth general 
council was held at Chalcedon, for the purpose of condemn- 
ing the errors of Eutyehus, who admitted but one nature 
in Jesus Christ, and maintained that his human nature was 
totally absorbed by the divine, and became one with it; so 



398 CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 

that in his opinion Christ had no real body, and coiisq* 
quently, as divine nature is incapable of suffering, he had 
neither died nor suffered really, but in appearance only. 
The heresy, however, continued to increase, causing vio- 
lence and confusion, particularly in the east, until after the 
fifth general council, held at Constantinople during the year 
553, when it gradually declined. 

9. But the church was not destined to enjoy a long con- 
tinuance of repose ; one heresy was no sooner checked and 
proscribed, than a new one started up in its place. Error 
had often found protection in the imperial palace, but in the 
present instance, we find the emperor himself becoming the 
founder of a new sect, called the Iconoclasts or Image- 
breakers. Leo, surnamed the Isaurian, having ascended 
the throne of Constantinople, conceived a great aversion to 
the images of Christ and the saints, which were used in the 
churches, and ordered their removal under the severest pen- 
alties. In carrying this extraordinary edict into effect, much 
violence and bloodshed was occasioned ; and the disturbance 
continued to rage until the convocation of the seventh gen- 
eral council, held at Nice towards the close of the year 787. 
This council was attended by about 300 bishops, the repre- 
sentatives of the church from all parts of the Christian 
world, and after due deliberation, they unanimously declared 
that the pictures and images of Jesus Christ and his saints, 
are useful in the churches and other places ; that they Re- 
call forcibly to the minds of those who behold them, the 
scenes they represent; that they may be venerated and 
honored, not indeed with that supreme honor which belongs 
to God alone, but with a relative and inferior honor, such 
as every Christian entertains for the Bible in which the 
divine law is written. 

10. In the year 866, Photius, through the influence of 
imperial authority, was placed in the patriarchal chair of 
Constantinople, to the forcible exclusion of St. Ignatius, 
its lawful incumbent. Proceeding from one extravagance 
to another, Photius at length calling together a synod of 21 
bishops, pronounced sentence of deposition and excommu- 
nication against Nicholas, the Roman pontiff. Upon the 
accession of Leo, surnamed the Wise, Photius was com^ 
pelled to relinquish his usurped dignity and to retire to a 
monastery in Armenia, where he died in the year 893. The 
foundation of the Greek Schism was thus commenced, and 
finally completed by Michael Cerularius, in 1053. On 
the death of Alexis, Michael, from the humble condition of 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 397 

a monk, was to succeed him in the patriarchal chair. Short- 
ly after his elevation, he began by his acls and writings, to 
display his inveterate prejudice against the discipline and 
doctrine of the Latin church. 

11. St. Leo, the Roman pontiff, seeing that every thing 
seemed to threaten an open rupture, done all in his power 
to prevent it. He sent the celebrated Cardinal Humbert 
to Constantinople for the purpose of effecting an adjust- 
ment of the difficulties; but without success. Michael now 
threw off all restraint, assumed the title of universal patri- 
arch, and published an act of excommunication against the 
bishop of Rome and the whole Latin church ; and proceed- 
ing from schism to heresy, he denied the procession of the 
Holy Ghost from God the Son, as well as from the Father. 
The maintenance of this article with the rejection of the 
papal jurisdiction, besides some variation in points of dis- 
cipline, form the only difference at present, between the 
Greek and Latin churches. 

12. While these things were transacting in the East, 
new errors were broached in the West. Beregarius, arch- 
deacon of Angers, and a native of Tours in France, began 
to dogmatize against second marriages, also against the ne- 
cessity of infant baptism, and lastly, against the real presence 
of Christ's body in the Holy Eucharist. Several local 
councils were held for the purpose of ascertaining the opin- 
ion of the church on these different points of doctrine. 
Beregarius being cited to appear before them, renounced 
his positions, but afterwards propagated them in the new. 
In the year 1079, during the pontificate of St. Gregory 
VII., a great council was held at Rome, at which 150 bish- 
ops assisted. Before the assembled prelates, Beregarius 
again solemnly recanted his opinions, confessed that he had 
been deceived, and threw his writings into the fire. It is 
generally believed, that after this, he remained in the com- 
munion of the Catholic church until his death, which took 
place during the year 1088. 

13. From an early period it had been customary for em- 
perors or kings, to present the ring and crosier to all the 
bishops elected within their respective dominions. Against 
this custom, called Investiture, the sovereign pontiffs had 
long declaimed, as it was often productive of evil conse- 
quences, subjecting the church to the necessity of waiting 
on the capricious will of the sovereign to fill the vacant 
bishoprics. During the pontificate of Gregory VII., the 
privilege was warmly contested against Henry IV., emper- 



398 CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 

or of Germany, and continued to be a subject of dispute 
until the affair was finally settled at the council of Lateran, 
held in the year 1123, when his successor, Henry V., re- 
nounced his pretensions to the right of Investiture. 

14. Shortly after this period, the peace of the church 
was again interrupted by the pretension of two claimants of 
the papal chair. On the death of Honorius II., Innocent 
II. was chosen to succeed him by a majority of the cardi- 
nals, not however, without strong opposition on the part of 
Cardinal Peter, who had long aspired to the pontifical dig- 
nity. He had the address to procure his election in oppo- 
sition to the lawful pontiff, whom he expelled from Rome, 
and kept possession of his usurpation until his death, in 
the year 1138. The most striking circumstances that dis- 
tinguish the close of this and the greater part of the follow- 
ing century, were the C?*usades, or sacred wars, underta- 
ken for the recovery of the Holy Land from the. hands of 
the infidels ; of these we have spoken, under their proper 
head. 

15. During the pontificate of Gregory IX., a treaty of 
union was commenced between the Greek and Latin 
churches ; and although it did not receive the entire approba- 
tion of the Greek nation, still it seemed to promise a hap- 
py issue. The project was eagerly pursued by the suc- 
ceeding pope, and finally accomplished in the time of Greg- 
ory X., at the great council held at Lyons, in France, A. 
D. 1274. The union however, was of short duration. On 
the death of Michael, the Greek emperor, his son Androni- 
cus, who had ever been averse to the union, openly disa- 
vowed the measure, and in a short time frustrated all that 
had been accomplished at the council of Lyons. The 
bishops, who signed and refused to retract the union, were 
deposed, and the Greek church a second time, plunged into 
heresy and schism. 

16. On the death of Gregory XL, Urban IV. was chor 
sen to succeed him in the pontifical throne. At this time 
the abuses committed by the agents arid officers of the 
court of Rome, had become a subject of loud complaint. 
A laudable zeal in effecting a reform, carried this pontiff to 
a degree of severity which was deemed imprudent. In his 
exhortations and reprimands, he spared not even the cardi- 
nals themselves. They felt the justness of his censures, 
but rather than reform the causes of complaint, they chose 
to involve all Christendom in confusion. Retiring from 
Rome to the number of fifteen, they proceeded to Fondi, 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 390 

where, declaring the Roman see vacant, they chose for 
pope, Robert of Geneva, who took the name of Clement, 
and fixed his residence at Avignon, A. D. 1379. Urban, 
however, steadily maintained his authority until his death, 
in 1389. Five years afterwards, Clement, his rival, was 
called from the busy scenes of life to the silence of the 
tomb. 

17. About the year 1385, John Wickliffe, styled the Re- 
former, appeared in England during the latter part of the 

reign of Edward III. Wickliffe had received a liberal ed- 
ucation in the University, where he subsequently gave les- 
sons of divinity with much applause. The doctrines ad- 
vanced by him were chiefly the following: He maintained 
that a bishop or priest in the state of mortal sin, could not 
ordain, consecrate, or baptize; that the substance of the 
bread and wine remain in the sacrament after consecration, 
and that Christ was not really present therein; that the 
pope, if he be a wicked man, has no authority over the 
faithful; that the clergy ought to have no temporal posses- 
sions, and that auricular confession was superfluous and 
unnecessary. Wickliffe gained many adherents, of whom 
the Duke of Lancaster, the king's uncle, was the most dis- 
tinguished, under whose patronage he continued to dissem- 
inate his principles until his death. His followers are gen- 
erally known by the name of Lollards. 

18. The convocation of the general council of Con- 
stance, had two important objects in view, namely, the ex- 
tinction of schism, and the investigation of the doctrines 
advanced by Wickliffe, which were still advocated by his 
disciples. It was proposed for the sake of peace, that the 
three competitors would resign their pretensions to the pon- 
tifical throne. To this measure, Gregory readily assented; 
John, who was regarded as the lawful pope, showing an 
unwillingness to resign his claim, was deposed by the 
council, but he afterwards freely signed the act of his de- 
position. Benedict, the third competitor, obstinately refused 
to come into any measures with the members of the coun- 
cil, who, regarding the Holy See as vacant, proceeded to 
make arrangements for the election of a new pontiff. The 
choice fell upon cardinal Otho Colonna, who took the name 
of Martin V. His election gave universal satisfaction, and 
happily ended the schism which had so long distracted the 
church, A. D. 1417. 

19. The writings of Wickliffe, which by this time had 
passed into Germany, fell into the hands of John Huss, 



400 CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 

lector of the University of Prague. Pleased with the prin- 
ciples they inculcated, he adopted them, and preached them 
from the pulpit. His eloquence and the persuasive manner 
in which he addressed his audience, gained him many ad- 
herents, among whom a professor of divinity, known by 
the name of Jerome of Prague, was the most distinguish- 
ed. Huss being cited to appear before the council to give 
an account of his doctrines, readily consented, and having 
obtained a passport for the security of his person, from the 
emperor, he set out to Constance. Having arrived there, he 
began to disseminate his principles among the people, for 
which he was placed under arrest, and sent to the Domini- 
can Convent, until the council could take cognizance of his 
case. When called before the prelates, he was convicted 
of holding doctrines contrary to the church, and refusing 
to retract, he was degraded from the order of the priest- 
hood, and delivered over to the civil power. The punish- 
ment which the Germanic law at that time inflicted on 
those convicted of obstinate errors against faith, was burn- 
ing alive; to this cruel ordeal, Huss was sentenced by the 
magistrates of Constance, and suffered on the 16th of July, 
in 1415. About a year after this event, Jerome of Prague 
was condemned for obstinately maintaining the doctrines of 
Huss, and was executed in a similar manner. 

20. In 1439, the last re-union of the Greek with the 
Latin church took place, at the council held at Florence. 
After the great point in dispute, namely, the procession of 
the Holy Ghost, had been regularly discussed, the Greeks 
frankly acknowledged that the Latins had proved their 
point. A decree was accordingly made out, which once 
more united the churches of Rome and Constantinople in 
one fold and under one pastor, and was first signed by the 
pope and Latin fathers, then by the Greek emperor and all 
his bishops, except Mark, the metropolian of Ephesus. 

This memorable event, which had been so well conduct- 
ed, afforded every well grounded hope, that the orthodox 
faith would once more diffuse its rays over the provinces 
of the East. But from the unsteady character of the Greeks, 
little could be expected; the union, after enjoying a preca- 
rious existence for a few years, was severed forever.-— 
In 1452, a general revolt took place, and threw every thing 
into confusion ; the> monks, the clergy, a part of the laity 
and the senate, rose tumultuously at once, proclaimed the 
union at an end, and from that moment, removed all com- 
munion with the Latin church. 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 401 

SECTION III. 
The Reformation, Jl. D. 1517. 

1. Amidst the various circumstances which continued to 
awaken the jealousies, and direct the interests of the rival 
monarch of Europe, the bishop of Rome was often com- 
pelled to act in the two-fold capacity as a temporal prince, 
and as the spiritual head of the Christian world. Unhap- 
pily the obligations annexed to his character, as head of the 
church, obligations which had no other object than the in- 
terest of religion, and the general peace of all Christendom, 
were sometimes, by a dereliction of duty incident to human 
nature, made subservient to selfish or political ends. The 
sovereign pontiffs, moreover, enjoyed extensive privileges, 
which excited the murmurs of many of the clergy, and 
contributed materially to weaken the papal jurisdiction, par- 
ticularly in the West, where it had numerous and formida- 
ble adversaries. 

2. In this state of things, Leo X. was called to fill the 
pontifical chair. Julius, his predecessor, had formed the 
design of erecting a church in Rome, in honor of St. Peter, 
which in extent and magnificence, would be worthy of the 
capital of the Christian world. This noble design suited 
the lofty genius of Leo. But finding the sum in the treas- 
ury insufficient for the completion of the work, he resolved 
to appeal to the generosity of the faithful at large ; and in 
order to encourage their gratuitous offerings, he published 
a grant of indulgences to all those who should contribute 
towards the expense of the edifice, solely designed for the 
honor of God. 

An indulgence accordingly, as I find it defined in several 
standard Catholics works,*" is a relaxation of the tempor- 
al punishment, which still remains due to sin, after its guilt 
has been remitted by the sacrament of Penance." 

3. In the publication of these indulgences and in the col- 
lection of the contributions of the faithful, many abuses 
are alledged to have been committed by those appointed for 
that purpose. On similar occasions, when a crusade or the 
like was to be put in motion, the Augustin Friars were usu- 
ally appointed to announce it from the pulpit ; at this time 
however, they had the mortification to see the Dominicans 

* Poor Man's Catechism. Catholic Christian Instructor. 
17* 



402 CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 

preferred before them. This circumstance tended materially 
to pique the Augustinians, and led them to reprobate in the 
most pointed manner, the misconduct of the members of a 
rival order. The most conspicuous of those who publicly- 
denounced the abuses committed by the Dominicans, was 
Martin Luther, doctor and professor in the University of 
Wittemberg. In the warmth of his invectives, Luther pas- 
sed from the abuses to contest the efficacy of the indul- 
gences themselves. The University over which he pre- 
sided, and the elector of Saxony espoused his interest. 
The dispute was maintained for some time with much earn- 
estness between the papal commissioners and the divines of 
Frankfort. 

4. In the mean time, his doctrine, which now began to 
excite universal attention, was announced to his holiness at 
Rome. Leo, in 1520, published a bull in which he pro- 
scribed the opinions of Luther, and called on him to retract 
his errors and to burn his writings, and placed him under 
the censure of excommunication unless he should comply 
within a given time. Luther at first determined to appeal 
from the pope to a general council, but being protected by 
the elector of Saxony, he resolved to pursue a more decid- 
ed course. Finding himself excommunicated and his opin- 
ions condemned, he no longer observed any restraint, but 
publicly burnt the papal bull in the presence of a vast as- 
semblage of the people in the city of Wittemberg, and from 
that moment renounced the authority of the Pontiff. 

5. This circumstance tended materially to advance his 
cause. The people on a sudden lost that reverential awe 
which had formerly impressed them for every thing pro- 
ceeding from the Roman Pontiff, and also the confidence 
which they had always reposed in the efficacy of indul- 
gences. Luther perceiving that his doctrines had caused 
considerable ferment in the empire, thought prudent to with- 
draw for some time from public view. He retired to a cas- 
tle belonging to his protector, the Duke of Saxony. In 
this retreat he digested his system of reform. Having al- 
ready renounced the papal supremacy, he next rejected 
transubstantiation, the sacrifice of the mass, purgatory, and 
the utility of prayers for the dead ; also the invocation and 
intercession of the saints, and finally, monastic vows, celib- 
acy of the clergy, and the merit of good works. 

6. At the solicitation of the pope and the princes of Ger- 
many, Charles V., who had lately succeeded to the impe- 
rial throne, assembled a diet at Worms in 1521, for the pur- 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 403 

pose of taking some measures relative to the new doctrines. 
Luther, without being the least intimidated by the late cen- 
sures fulminated against him, appeared before the assembly, 
boldly defended all that he had done or written, and in con- 
clusion declared that his conscience would not permit him 
to make the least retraction whatever. An imperial edict 
was passed, which ordered his writings to be burnt, and him- 
self to be placed under arrest. Under these circumstances, 
Luther thought it proper again to withdraw, but the sudden 
departure of the emperor to Spain, rendered the edict inef- 
fectual. 

7. Lutheranism or the Reformation as it was now called, 
spread rapidly through the different states of Germany. 
From Upper Saxony it extended over the Northern districts, 
the principalities of Brunswick and Mecklenberg ; it passed 
into the Palatinate, Lunenburg, Magdeburg, and most of 
the towns along the coast of the Baltic, as far as Prussia. In 
1530, the Lutheran directors published their confession of 
faith in 21 articles, which are called the Confession of Augs- 
burg. The following year is distinguished for the famous 
league of Smalkald, when the confederate princes of the 
confession solemnly bound themselves to support each other 
in their protest against all compulsory measures, that the 
emperor might adopt against them. From this protest made 
at Smalkald, those professing the reformed religion have 
acquired the appellation of Protestants. 

8. At the diet of Augsburg, the princes who had signed 
the confession, pledged themselves to abide the decision of 
a general council to be convened by the pope. Accordingly, 
in 1542, Paul III. convoked a general council to meet at 
Trent, for the purpose of terminating the religious contests, 
which had so long disturbed the tranquility of the empire and 
that of Europe. This celebrated synod was not concluded 
before the year 1563, at which time the Protestants thought 
proper not to be ruled by its decrees. In the mean time, a 
treaty of peace was concluded at Passau between Charles 
V. and the princes of Germany, which secured to the Pro- 
testants, religious toleration and full liberty of conscience. 

9. Among those who bore a prominent part with Luther, 
in the early part of the Reformation, are the names of Cal- 
vin, Zuinglius, Melancthon, Carolostadius, and Beza. 
(See Biography.) The Reformation soon extended into 
Sweden and Denmark, and was firmly established in the 
city of Geneva, and the Swiss cantons by Calvin. It was 



404 CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 

about this time that Henry VIII. of England, applied for a 
divorce from Catherine of Arragon; but being disappointed 
in his application, he renounced the authority of the pope, 
and assumed the title of the supreme head of the English 
church. Under his successor, Edward VI., through the in- 
strumentality of Cranmer, the reformed doctrines were ef- 
fectually established in that kingdom. Scotland soon be- 
came the theatre of reform, through the preaching of Knox, 
who had imbibed the principles of Calvin during his resi- 
dence at Geneva. 

10. While thousands were deserting the ancient faith, 
the church of Rome beheld with pleasure the formation 
of a religious society of men, destined to carry the light of 
Christianity to nations over which the gloom of paganism 
still prevailed. The founder of this new order was Igna- 
tius of Loyola, born in the year 1491, of a noble family in 
Spain. On the 15th of August, in the year 1534, Ignatius 
and nine champions, by vow consecrated themselves to 
God for the purpose of promoting his service, and procur- 
ing the salvation of souls. In 1537, they repaired to Rome 
and made an offer of their services to pope Paul III. The 
pontiff gave them a gracious reception, applauded their 
zeal, and in 1540 erected them into a religious order under 
the title of the Society of Jesus. To instruct children and 
the ignorant in the principles and duties of religion ; to as- 
sist the faithful in their spiritual wants ; to announce the 
truths of Christianity to pagan nations, marked the spirit 
and design of the institution of St. Ignatius. 

11. But as these objects could not be attained without 
the united force of virtue and learning, the study of the va- 
rious branches of polite literature, from the first rudiments 
of grammar, to the sublime lessons of astronomy, is en- 
joined as a sacred duty on the members of this order. 
Shortly after the foundation of the society, its members 
rapidly increased ; and in a few years, they had colleges 
established in various towns of Italy, Portugal and Spain. 
St. Francis Xavier, one of the first companions of Igna- 
tius, was sent to carry the light of Christianity to pagan 
nations of the east. The principal scene of his labor, was 
in the empire of Japan ; from thence he passed over to 
China, where he died in 1552. So abundant were the fruits 
of his labor, that in the short space of one month, he is said 
to have baptized with his own hand 10,000 persons. About 
the time that St. Francis had finished his apostolic course 



CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 405 

in Asia, Joseph Jlnchieta undertook a similar mission 
among the Indians of South America. 

12° The Reformed churches differ materially from each 
other' in form and in belief, all however, take the Bible as 
the sole rule of faith, and maintain the right of private in- 
terpretation. 



APPENDIX. 

DECLARATION 

OF 

INDEPENDENCE 



In Congress, July 4th, 1776. 

The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United 
States of America. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes ne- 
cessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which 
have connected them with another, and to assume, among 
the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to 
which the laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle 
them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires 
that they should declare the causes which impel them to the 
separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident; — that all men 
are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator 
with certain unalienable rights ; that among- these are life, 
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these 
rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their 
just powers from the consent of the governed ; that when- 
ever any form of government becomes destructive of these 
ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, 
and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on 
such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as 
to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and 
happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that governments 
long established should not be changed for light and tran- 
sient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown, 
that mankind are more disposed to suffer while evils are 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 407 

sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms 
to whicli they are accustomed. But when a long train of 
abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, 
it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such govern- 
ment, and to provide new guards for their future security. 
Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies ; and 
such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter 
their former systems of government. The history of the 
present king of Great Britain, is a history of repeated in- 
juries and usurpations, all having in direct object the estab- 
lishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove 
this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome 
and necessary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate 
and pressing importance, unless suspended in their opera- 
tion, till his assent should be obtained ; and when so sus- 
pended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He 
has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
large districts of people, unless those people would relin- 
quish the right of representation in the legislature — a right 
inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their pub- 
lic records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into com- 
pliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for 
opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights 
of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to 
cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, 
incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at 
large, for their exercise ; the state remaining, in the mean 
time, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, 
and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these 
states ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturaliza- 
tion of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage 
their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new 
appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refus- 
ing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the 
tenure of their offices and the amount and payment of their 
salaries. 



408 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
swarms of officers, to harass our people, and eat out their 
substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies 
without the consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, 
and superior to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdic- 
tion foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our 
laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legisla- 
tion : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment 
for any murders which they should commit on the inhabit- 
ants of these states : 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent: 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial 
by jury : 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended 
offenses : 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a 
neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary gov- 
ernment, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at 
once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same 
absolute rule into these colonies : 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valua- 
ble laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our gov- 
ernments : 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring them- 
selves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases 
whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out 
of hTs protection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our 
towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign 
mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and 
tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and 
perfidy, scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and 
totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on 
the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become 
the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall 
themselves by their hands. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 409 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and 
lias endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers 
the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare 
is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and 
conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned 
for redress in the most humble terms : our repeated peti- 
tions have been answered only by repeated injury. A 
prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which 
may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British 
brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of 
attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable 
jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the cir- 
cumstances of our migration and settlement here. We have 
appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we 
have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to 
disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably inter- 
rupt our connexions and correspondence. They too have 
been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We 
must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces 
our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man- 
kind — enemies in war, in peace friends. 

WE, therefore, the representatives of the United States 
of America, in general congress assembled, appealing to 
the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our 
intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good 
people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, that 
these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and 
independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegi- 
ance to the British crown, and that all political connexion 
between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought 
to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent 
states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, 
contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other 
acts and things which independent states may of right do. 
And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance 
on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge 
to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 



410 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 



New- Hampshire. 

JOSIAH BART LETT, 
WILLIAM WHIPPLE, 
MATTHEW THORNTON. 

Massachusetts-Bay . 

SAMUEL ADAMS, 
JOHN ADAMS, 
ROBERT TREAT PAINE, 
ELB RIDGE GERRY. 

Rhode-Island, fyc. 

STEPHEN HOPKINS, 
WILLIAM ELLERY. 

Connecticut. 

ROGER SHERMAN, 
SAMUEL HUNTINGTON, 
WILLIAM WILLIAMS, 
OLIVER. WOLCOTT. 

New- York. 

WILLIAM FLOYD, 
PHILIP LIVINGSTON, 
FRANCIS LEWIS, 
LEWIS MORRIS. 

New-Jersey. 

RICHARD STOCKTON, 
JOHN WITHERSPOON, 
FRANCIS HOPKINSON, 
JOHN PI ART, 
ABRAHAM CLARKE. 

Pennsylvania. 

ROBERT MORRIS, 
BENJAMIN RUSH, 
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 
JOHN MORTON, 
GEORGE CLYMER, 
JAMES SMITH, 



GEORGE TAYLOR, 
JAMES WILSON, 
GEORGE ROSS. 

Delaware. 

CESAR RODNEY, 
GEORGE READ, 
THOMAS M'KEAN. 

Maryland. 

SAMUEL CHASE, 
WILLIAM PACA, 
THOMAS STONE, 
CHARLES CARROLL, of Car- 

rollton. 

Virginia. 

GEORGE WYTHE, 
RICHARD HENRY LEE, 
THOMAS JEFFERSON, 
BENJAMIN HARRISON, 
THOMAS NELSON, Jr., 
FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE, 
CARTER BRAXTON. 

North Carolina. 

WILLIAM HOOPER, 
JOSEPH HEWES, 
JOHN PENN. 

South Carolina. 

EDWARD RUTLEDGE, 
THOMAS PIEYWARD, Jr., 
THOMAS LYNCH, Jr., 
ARTHUR MIDDLETON. 

Georgia. 

BURTON GWINNETT, 
LYMAN PI ALL, 
GEORGE WALTON. 



CONSTITUTION 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES 



WE, the people of the United Slates, in order to form a 
more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran- 
quility, provide for the common defense, promote the gen- 
eral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves 
and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution 
for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I. SECTION I. 

I. All legislative powers herein granted, shall be vested 
in a Congress of the United Slates, which shall consist of 
a senate and house of representatives. 

SECTION II. 

1. The house of 'representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year by the people of the 
several states ; and the electors in each state shall have the 
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous 
branch of the state legislature. 

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not 
have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been sev- 
en years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, 
when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he 
shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned 
among the several states which may be included within this 
union, according to their respective numbers, which shall 



412 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

be determined by adding to the whole number of free per- 
sons, including those bound to service for a term of years, 
and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other 
persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within the 
three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the 
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten 
years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The 
number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 
thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one repre- 
sentative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the 
state of New- Hampshire shall be entitled to chose three ; 
Massachusetts eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plan- 
tations one ; Connecticut five ; New-York six ; New Jer- 
sey four; Pennsylvania eight; Delaware one ; Maryland 
six ; Virginia ten ; North-Carolina five ; South- Carolina 
five ; and Georgia three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from 
any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs 
of election to fill up such vacancies. 

5. The house of representatives shall choose their speak- 
er and other officers, and shall have the sole power of im- 
peachment. 

SECTION III. 

1. The Senate of the United Stales shall be composed 
of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature 
thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse- 
quence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equal- 
ly as may be, into three classes. The seats of the senators 
of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the 
second year, of the second class at the expiration of the 
fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the 
sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second 
year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation or otherwise, 
during the recess of the legislature of any state, the execu- 
tive thereof may make temporary appointments until the 
next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such 
vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have at- 
tained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citi- 
zen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The vice-president of the United States shall be pres- 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 413 

klent of the senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be 
equally divided. 

5. The senate shall choose their other officers, and also 
a president pro-tempore, in the absence of the vice-presi- 
dent, or when he shall exercise the ofHce of president of 
the United States. 

6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all im- 
peachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be 
on oath or affirmation. When the president of the United 
States is tried, the chief justice shall preside; and no per- 
son shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds 
of the members present. 

7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend 
further than to removal from office, and disqualification to 
hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit, under 
the United States ; but the party convicted shall neverthe- 
less be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and 
punishment according to law. 

SECTION IV. 

1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections 
for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each 
state by the legislature thereof; but the congress may, at 
any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as 
to the places of choosing senators. 

2. The congress shall assemble at least once in every 
year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in De- 
cember, unless they shall bylaw appoint a different day. 

SECTION v. 

1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, re- 
turns, and qualifications of its own members ; and a ma- 
jority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but 
a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may 
be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, 
in such manner and under such penalties as each house 
may provide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceed- 
ings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with 
the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, 
and from time to time publish the same, excepting such 
parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the 
yeas and nays of the members of either house, on any ques- 



414 CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES* 

lion, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be 
entered on the journal. 

4. Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, 
without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than 
three days, nor to any other place than that in which the 
two houses shall be sitting. 

SECTION VI. 

1. The senators and representatives shall receive a com- 
pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and 
paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, 
in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, 
be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the ses- 
sion of their respective houses, and in going to or return- 
ing from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either 
house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for 
which, he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under 
the authority of the United States, which shall have been 
created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increas- 
ed, during such time ; and no person holding any office un- 
der the United States shall be a member of either house 
during his continuance in office. 

SECTION VII. 

1. All bills for raising revenues shall originate in the 
house of representatives ; but the senate may propose or 
concur with amendments, as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the house of rep- 
resentatives and the senate, shall, before it becomes a law, 
be presented to the president of the United States ; if he 
approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with 
his objections, to that house in which it shall have origina- 
ted, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, 
and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, 
two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall 
be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, 
by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved 
by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in 
all such cases, the votes of both houses shall be determined 
by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for 
and against the bill, shall be entered on the journal of each 
house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by 
the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 415 

shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law 
in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the congress, 
by their adjournment, prevent its return; in which case it 
shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concur- 
rence of the senate and house of representatives may be 
necessary, (except on a question of adjournment,) shall be 
presented to the president of the United States ; and before 
the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or be- 
ing disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of 
the senate and house of representatives, according to the 
rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

SECTION VIII. 

The congress shall have power— 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises ; 
to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and 
general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, im- 
posts, and excises, shall be uniform throughout the United 
States : 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States : 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among 
the several states, and with the Indian tribes : 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uni- 
form laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the 
United States : 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of 
foreign coin, and to fix the standard of weights and mea- 
sures : 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the 
securities and current coin of the United States : 

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads : 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, 
by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, 
the exclusive right to their respective writings and discove- 
ries : 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court: 
To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on 
the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations : 

10. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, 
and make rules concerning captures on land and water: 

11. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation 
of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two 
years : 



416 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

12. To provide and maintain a navy : 

13. To make rules for the government and regulation of 
the land and naval forces : 

14. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute 
the laws of the union, suppress insurrections, and repel in- 
vasions : 

15. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining 
the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be 
employed in the service of the United States, reserving to 
the states, respectively, the appointment of the officers, and 
the authority of training the militia according to the discip- 
line prescribed by congress : 

16. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases what- 
soever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) 
as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance 
of congress, become the seat of government of the United 
States, and to exercise like authority over all places pur- 
chased, by the consent of the legislature of the state in 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga- 
zines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings:— 
and, 

17. To make all laws which shall be necessary and pro- 
per for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and 
all other powers vested by this constitution in the govern- 
ment of the United States, or in any department or officer 
thereof. ' , . v 

SECTION IX. 

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any 
of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall 
not be prohibited by the congress prior to the year one 
thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may 
be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars 
for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not 
be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or inva- 
sion, the public safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be 
passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless 
in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before 
directed to be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from 
any state. No preference shall be given, by any regula- 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 417 

lion of commerce or revenue, to the ports of one state over 
those of another: nor shall vessels bound to or from one 
state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in 
consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular 
statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of 
all public money shall be published from time to time. 

7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United 
States, and no person holding any office of profit or trust 
under them, shall, without the consent of the congress, ac- 
cept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind 
whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

SECTION X. 

1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
federation ; grant letters of marque or reprisal; coin mo- 
ney ; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and sil- 
ver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of 
attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation 
of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. 

2. No state shall, without the consent of the congress, 
lay auy imposts or duties on imports or exports, except 
what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspec- 
tion laws ; and the neat produce of all duties and imposts, 
laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the 
treasury of the United States, and all such laws shall be 
subject to the revision and control of the congress. No 
state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any 
duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of 
peace, enter into any agreement or eompaet with another 
state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless ac- 
tually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not ad- 
mit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. SECTION 1. 

1. The executive power shall be vested in a president 
of the United States of America. He shall hold his office 
during the term of four years, and, together with the vice- 
president, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 

2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legis- 
lature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to 
the whole number of senators and representatives to which 
the state may be entitled in the congress ; but no senator 

IS 



418 COXSTITtJTlON OF THE UNITED STATES. 

or representative, or person holding an office of trust or 
profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

3. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and 
vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall 
not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. 
And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and 
of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign 
and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the govern- 
ment of the United States, directed to the president of the 
senate. The president of the senate shall, in the presence 
of the senate and house of representatives, open all the cer- 
tificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person 
having the greatest number of votes shall be the president, 
if such number be a majority of the whole number of elec- 
tors appointed; and if there be more than one who have 
such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the 
house of representatives shall immediately choose, by bal- 
lot, one of them for president; and if no person have a 
majority, then, from the five highest on t?te list, the said 
house shall, in like manner, choose the president. But, irt 
choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, 
the representation from each state having one voto ; a quo- 
rum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members 
from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states 
shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, al!er the 
choice of the president, the person having the greatest num- 
ber of votes of the electors, shall be the vice-president. But 
if there should remain two or more who have equal vi *es, 
the senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the vke-piss- 
ident. No. S has been annulled and supplied. 

4. The congress may determine the time of choosing the 
©lectors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; 
which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 

&. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen? 
of the United States at the time of the adoption of this 
constitution, shall be eligible to the office of president: 
neither shall any person be eligible to that office, who shall 
not have attained to the age of thirty-five years T and beer* 
fourteen years a resident within the Uniied States. 

6. In case of the removal of the president from office, or 
of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the pow- 
ers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on 
the vice-president, and the congress may, by law, provide 
for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both 
of the president and vice-president* declaring what officer 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 419 

shall then act as president; and such officer shall act ac- 
cordingly, until the disability be removed, or a president 
shall be elected. 

7. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his 
services a compensation, which shall neither be increased 
nor diminished during the period for which he shall have 
been elected, and he shall not receive within that period 
any other emolument from the United States, or any of 
them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall 
take the following oath or affirmation : 

9. " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully 
execute the office of the president of the United States, 
and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and 
defend the constitution of the United States." 

SECTION II. 

1. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the 
army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of 
the several states, when called into the actual service of the 
United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of 
the principal officer in each of the executive departments, 
upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and par- 
dons for offenses against the United States, except in cases 
of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and con- 
sent of the senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of 
the senators present concur : and he shall nominate, and, 
by and with the advice and consent of the senate, shall ap- 
point ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, 
judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the 
United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise 
provided for, and which shall be established by law. But 
the congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such in- 
ferior officers as they think proper, in the president alone, 
in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

3. The president shall have power to fill up all vacan- 
cies that may happen during the recess of the senate, by 
granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of 
their next session. 

SECTION III. 

1. He shall, from time to time, give to the congress in- 
formation of the state of the Union, and reuommend to their 



420 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary 
and expedient: he may, on extraordinary occasions, con- 
vene boih houses, or either of them, and, in case of dis- 
agreement between them, with respect to the time of ad- 
journment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall 
think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other pub- 
lic ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully 
executed; and shall commission all the officers of the 
United States. 

SECTION IV. 

1. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers of 
the United States, shall be removed from office on impeach- 
ment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high 
crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. SECTION I. 

1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the 
congress may, from time to time, ordain and establish. The 
judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold 
their offices during good behavior; and shall, at stated 
limes, receive for their services a compensation which shall 
not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

SECTION II. 

1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law 
and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of the 
United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, 
under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, 
other public ministers and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty 
and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the 
United States shall be a party ; to controversies between 
two or more states : between a state and citizens of another 
state; between citizens of different states; between citizens 
of the same state claiming lands under grants of different 
states; and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and 
foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public minis- 
ters and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, 
the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all 
the other cases befope mentioned, the supreme court shall 
have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with 
such exceptions, a.nd under such regulations, as the con- 
gress shall make. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 421 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeach- 
ment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the 
state where the said crimes shall have been commuted ; but 
when not committed in any state, the trial shall be at such 
place or places as the congress may by law have directed. 

SECTION III. 

1. Treason against the United Slates shall consist only 
in levying war against them, or in adhering to their ene- 
mies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be 
convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two wit- 
nesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

2. The congress shall have power to declare the punish- 
ment of treason : but no attainder of treason shall work 
corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of 
the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV.— SECTION I. 

1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the 
public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other 
state. And the congress may, by general laws, prescribe 
the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings 
shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

SECTION II. 

1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all priv- 
ileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. 

2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or 
other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in 
another state, shall, on demand of the executive authority 
of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be re- 
moved to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one state under 
the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in conse- 
quence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from 
such service or labor; but shall be delivered up on claim of 
the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

SECTION III. 

1. New states may be admitted by the congress into this 
union ; but no new slate shall be formed or erected within 
the jurisdiction of any other state, nor any state be formed 
by the junction of two or more states, or parts of stales, 
without the consent of the legislatures of the states con- 
cerned, as well as of the congress. 



422 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

2. The congress shall have power to dispose of, and 
make all needful rules and regulations respecting the terri- 
tory or other property belonging to the United States ; and 
nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as to pre- 
judice any claims of the United States, or of any particular 
state. 

SECTION IV. 

1. The United States shall guaranty to every state in 
this union, a republican form of government, and shall pro- 
tect each of thern against invasion; and, on application of 
the legislature, or of the executive, (when the legislature 
cannot be convened.) against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 

1. The congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses 
shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this 
constitution ; or, on the application of the legislatures of 
two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for 
proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid 
to all intents and purposes, as part of this constitution, when 
ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several 
states, or by conventions in three-iourths thereof, as the one 
or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the 
congress ; provided, that no amendment which may be 
made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
eight, shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses 
in the ninth section of the first article: and that no state, 
without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage 
in the senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, 
before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid 
against the United States under this constitution, as under 
the confederation. 

2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States, 
which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties 
made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the 
United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and 
the judges in every state shall be bound thereby; any thing 
in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary not- 
withstanding. 

3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, 
and the members of the several state legislatures, and all 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



423 



executive and judicial officers, both of the United States 
and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirma- 
tion to support this constitution: but no religious test shall 
ever be required as a qualification to any office or public 
trust under the United States. 



ARTICLE VII. 

1. The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall 
be sufficient fur the establishment of this constitution be- 
tween the states so ratifying the same. 
Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the states 
present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year 
of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty- 
seven, and of the Independence of the United States of 
America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have here- 
unto subscribed our names- 



GEORGE WASHINGTON, 

New Hampshire, 

JOHN LANG DON, 
NICHOLAS OILMAN. 

Massachusetts, 

NATHANIEL GORHAM, 
RUFUS KING. 

Connecticut. 

WW SAMUEL JOHNSON, 
ROGER SHERMAN. 

New York. 
ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 

New Jersey. 

WM. LIVINGSTON, 
DAVID BREARLY, 
WM. PATTERSON, 
JONATHAN DAYTON. 

Pennsylvania. 

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 
THOMAS MIFFLIN, 
ROBERT MORRIS, 
GEORGE CLYMER, 
THOvlAS FITZSIMONS, 
JARED INGERSOLL, 
JAMES WILSON, 
GOUVERNEUR MORRIS. 

Attest . 



President and Deputy from Virginia. 
Delaware, 

GEORGE READ, 
GUNNING BEDFORD, Jr., 
JOHN DICKENSON, 
RICHARD BASSE IT, 
JACOB BROOM. 

Maryland. 

JAMES Mc HENRY, 
DANIEL, of St. Thomas Jenifer, 
DANIEL CARROLL. 

Virginia. 

JOHN BLAIR, 
JAMES MADISON, Jr. 

North Carolina. 

WM. BLOUNT, 

RICHARD DO BBS SPRAJGHT, 

HUGH WILLIAMSON. 



South Carolina. 

JOHN RUTLEDGE, 
C. COTES WORTH PINKNEY, 
CHARLES P1NKNEY, 
PIERCE BUTLER. 

Georgia. 

WILLIAM FEW, 
ABRAHAM BALDWIN. 

WM. JACKSON, 

Secretary* 



AMENDMENTS 

TO THE 

CONSTITUTION 



Article 1. Congress shall maker no law respecting an estab- 
lishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, 
or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the 
right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition 
the government for a redress of grievances. 

Art. 2. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the 
security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and 
bear arms shall not be infringed. 

Art. 3. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered 
in any house without the consent of the owner ; nor in 
time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

Art. 4. The right of the people to be secure in their 
persons, houses, papers and effects, against unreasonable 
searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no war- 
rants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath 
or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be 
searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

Art. 5. No person shall be held to answer for a capital 
or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or 
indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the 
land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual ser- 
vice, in time of war or public danger; nor shall any per- 
son be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeop- 
ardy of life or limb, nor shall be compelled, in any criminal 
case, to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of 
life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor 
shall private property be taken for public use, without just 
compensation. 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 425 

Art. 6. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall 
enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an i nt partial 
jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have 
been committed, which district shall have been previously 
ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and 
cause of the accusation: to be confronted with the wit- 
nesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtain- 
ing witnesses in his favor ; and to have the assistance of 
counsel for his defense. 

Art. 7. In suits at common law, where the value in con- 
troversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by 
jury shall be preserved ; and no fact tried by a jury shall 
be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, 
than according to the rules of the common law, 

Art. 8. Excessive bail shull not be required, nor exces- 
sive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments in- 
flicted. 

Art. 9. The enumeration in the constitution of certain 
rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others 
retained by the people. 

Art. 10. The powers not delegated to the United -States 
by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are 
reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. 

Art. 11. The judicial power of the United States shall 
not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, 
commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States 
by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of 
any foreign siate. 

Art. 12. § 1. The electors shall meet in their respective 
states, and vote by ballot for president and vice-president, 
one of whom at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same 
state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the 
person voted for as president, and in distinct ballots the 
person voted for as vice-president; and they shall make 
distinct lists of ail persons voted for as president, and of all 
persons voted for as vice-president, and of the number of 
votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and 
transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United 
States, directed to the president of the senate ; the presi- 
dent of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and 
house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the 
votes shall then be counted ; the person having the great- 
est number of votes for president, shall be the president, 
if such number be a majority of the whole number of elec- 
tors appointed : and-if no person have such majority, then 
18* 



426 AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 

from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceed- 
ing three, on the list of those voted for as president, the 
house of representatives shall choose immediately, by bal- 
lot, the president. But, in choosing the president, the votes 
shall be taken by states, the representation from each state 
having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of 
a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a 
majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. 
And if the house of representatives shall not choose a presi- 
dent whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, 
before the fourth day of March next following, then the 
vice-president shall act as president, as in the case of the 
death or other constitutional disability of the president. 

2. The person having the greatest number of votes as 
vice-president, shall he the vice-president, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
and if no person have a majority, then from the two high- 
est numbers on the list, the senate shall choose the vice- 
president : a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of 
the whole number shall be necessary to a choice, - 

3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office 
of president, shall be eligible to that of vice-president of 
the United States. 



BIOGRAPHY 

OF 

EMINENT PERSONAGES. 



The design of this biographical sketch, is to give a short 
account of such distinguished characters, as could not have 
been previously introduced, without interrupting, too mate- 
rially, that close connection of events, so requisite in a com- 
pendium of history. Hence the names, kings, emperors, 
&c, whose lives are immediately connected with the coun- 
tries to which they belonged, are generally omitted in this 
outline. 

Adam, the first of the human race, created by the Al- 
mighty from the dust of the earth, and placed in a delight- 
ful garden of Eden, with only one restriction laid upon him, 
namely, to abstain from eating the fruit of the tree of the 
knowledge of good and evil ; this injunction, however, he 
violated ; and iti consequence of his disobedience, he was 
driven from the earthly Paradise; and died at the age of 
930 years. 

Ashur, one of the sons of Shem, built JNineveh, and is 
supposed to have been the founder of the Assyrian empire ; 
little is recorded of him in scripture. 

Anacreon, a Greek poet, who flourished about 500 years 
before the Christian era. His odes have been much ad- 
mired for their sweetness, gaiety and elegance. He lived 
to the age of 85 years, and his death was occasioned by- 
being choked by the seed of a grape. 

Archimedes, a famous geometrician, was born at Syra- 
cuse. At the time, when the Romans under Marcellua 
besieged that city, he constructed machines which sunk 
several of their vessels, and others he set on fire by burn- 



428 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

ing glasses. He was killed by a Roman soldier, who was 
ignorant of his character, while the philosopher was en- 
gaged in his study, A. C. 208. 

iEsop, a Phrygian philosopher and fabulist, flourished 
about 580 years before the Christian era, and is supposed 
to have been the invenior of fabulous writing. He was ori- 
ginally a slave, but finally obtained his liberty. He travel- 
led over a greater part of Greece and Egypt, but spent much 
of his time at the court of Crcesus, king of Lydia, by whom 
he was commissioned to consult the oracle of Delphi. He 
offended the Delphians by his sarcastic remarks, by whom 
he was killed by being thrown from a rock. 

Aristotle, one of the most distinguished philosophers 
of antiquity, was a man possessed of extraordinary powers 
of intellect. His writings treat on almost every branch of 
knowledge in his time ; — moral and natural philosophy, 
metaphysics, mechanics, grammar, criticism and politics, 
all occupied his pen. He was moderate in his meals, slept 
little, and was indefatigably industrious. He taught in the 
Lyceum at Athens. A few moments before his death, he 
is said to have uttered these words : "1 entered this world 
in impurity ; I have lived in anxiety; I depart in perturba- 
tion. Cause of causes, pity me." He died at the age of 
63 years. 

Alexander, the Great, the son of Philip, king of Ma- 
cedon, was born at Pella, 335 years before the Christian 
era. At the age of ten years, he was placed for education, 
under the care of Aristotle. When he came to the throne, 
he immediately determined on the invasion of Asia ; defeat- 
ed Darius in three sanguinary battles, reduced Egypt, Me- 
dia, Syria, Persia and spread his conquests over a great part 
of India. On his return from India, he made Babylon the 
seat of his Asiatic empire, where he died in the 3^d year 
of his age, of a fever occasioned by excessive intemperance. 
Alexander was the most renowned hero of antiquity, sur- 
passing all others in the rapidity, extent, and splendor of 
his conquests ; perhaps no other individual ever produced 
greater misery on mankind, if, to the slaughter occasioned 
by his own wars, we take into consideration the influence 
which example has had on the career of others, who have 
made him their model. He possessed abilities and talents, 
which* might have rendered him distinguished as a states- 
man and a benefactor to his species, yet his military 
achievements alone have acquired him the surname of 
Grea 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 420 

Angelo, Michael, a distinguished painter, sculptor and 
architect,„was born in 1474. In architecture, he surpassed 
all the moderns, and is thought to have been the greatest 
designer that ever lived. His most celebrated painting is 
the Last Judgment. His architectural abilities are best 
displayed on the Church of St. Peter, at Rome, the build- 
ing of which he completed. His style is that of grandeur 
and sublimity, united with the utmost simplicity and beauty. 
He died in the 90ih year of his age. 

Addison, Joseph, an elegant English essayist and poet, 
was the son of a clergyman, and born in the year 1672. 
His merits, as a writer, procured for him public employ* 
ment, and in 1717, he was raised to the office of Secretary 
of State. His most admired productions in prose, are to 
be found in the Spectator. He is distinguished for a deli- 
cate and gentle humor, and his style is remarkable for purity 
and ease. His poetry is less admired ; his tragedy of Cato, 
however, has some merits. Addison died at the age of 57. 

Abraham, the immediate progenitor of the Hebrew na- 
tion, was the son of Terah, and born in Chaldea. After 
the death of his father, he removed into the land of Canaan, 
which God promised to give to his posterity. In the 100th 
year of his age his son Isaac was born. After passing - 
through various scenes of life, he was called to the severe 
trial of offering up his son Isaac in sacrifice at the command 
of the Deity. All his fondest hopes were reposed in that 
son, yet he hesitated not a moment in the execution of the 
divine behest. But at the moment, however, in which his 
arm was raised to take the life of his son, God interposed, 
and accepted the obedience of the patriarch in place of the 
sacrifice, commended his faith, and thus rescued Isaac from 
his impending fate. Abraham died at the age of 175 years. 

Bede, an English historian, surnamed the Venerable. 
He was born at Wearrnouth, about the year 672. In his 
youth he studied with much diligence, and soon became 
eminent for his learning. His most celebrated work is his 
Ecclesiastical History of England, which he published in 
731. He was a man of exemplary piety. His last sick- 
ness was a consumption, which terminated in the asthma. 
He supported his affliction with great firmness, and during 
his extreme weakness, never omitted the duties of his sta- 
tion. He died in 735. 

Burns, Robert, a celebrated Scotch poet, was born at 
Ayr, in 1759. He seems to have been a poet by nature; 
his poems in the Scottish dialect, are remarkable for their 



430 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

beauty, elegance, and simplicity. They no sooner appear- 
ed in print, than he was called from the plough to associate 
with men of letters. He died at the age of 39. His death 
was hastened by intemperance and licentious pleasures. 

Belisarius, an illustrious general under the emperor Jus- 
tinian. He repeatedly saved the empire by his vaior ; even 
when far advanced in years and scarcely able to wield his 
sword, he marched against the Huns, who made an irrup- 
tion into the empire, and defeated them with great slaugli 
ter. In return for his many services, the suspicious em- 
peror deprived him of all his honors, and condemned him 
to an ignominious confinement, which lasted for several 
months. It is believed that he again recovered the friend- 
ship of the emperor. He died, A. D. 565. 

Bacon, Roger, an eminent philosopher, was born in the 
year 1214, in England, of a respectable family, and be- 
came a monk of the Franciscan order. To the compre- 
hensive mind of Bacon, many of the discoveries made by 
the genius and toil of later ages, were known. He was 
acquainted with the structure of the air pump, with laws 
of optics, and the power of glasses. He gave such a clear 
description of gunpowder, that it is evident that he was its 
inventor. His writings amount to above 80 treatises on 
various subjects, but his chief production is his Opus Ma- 
jus, or Great Work, which he wrote while imprisoned 
through the jealousy of his enemies. He died at the age 
of 80. 

Bacon, Sir Francis, an eminent English philosopher, 
was born in 1561. His astonishing faculties were early 
developed, and gained him the favorable notice of Eliza- 
beth. On the accession of James I., he rose to power; 
was made attorney-general, keeper of the seals, lord chan- 
cellor, and finally raised to the peerage. His elevation ex- 
cited the envy of his enemies, and he was accused of bri- 
bery and corruption in the office of chancellor; in conse- 
quence of which he was fined £40,000, and sentenced to 
imprisonment in the tower. As an author, his Novum Or- 
ganum Scientiarum, has immortalized his name. He was 
the first who taught the proper method of studying the 
sciences, or rather, to point out the way in which we should 
begin and carry on our pursuit of knowledge, in order to 
arrive at truth ; and has been styled the pioneer of nature^ 
and the priest of nature's mysteries. 

Burke, Edmund, an eminent Irish orator and political 
Writer, was the son of a respectable attorney, at Carlow, 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 431 

where he was born, in 1730. After studying at Trinity 
College, Dublin, he went to London and entered at the 
Middle Temple ; but without paying any serious attention 
to the law, lie devoted his time principally to literature and 
politics. His style and arguments as a writer, soon attract- 
ed notice, and his Essay on the Sublime, gained for him 
universal admiration. In 1765. he was sent to parliament, 
where he combined the character of an elegant writer, with 
an eminent speaker. During the war of the American Rev- 
olution, he exerted all the power of his eloquence against 
the measu-res of the British. When the French Revolu- 
tion broke out, he became alarmed at the progress of licen- 
tious principles, and with a view of counteracting them in 
England, he published his celebrated Reflections. For 
some time before his death, he retired from public life. He 
died in 1797. As an author, his merits are universally ac- 
knowledged ; he was copious, elegant, and forcible. 

Buonaparte, Napoleon, was a native of Corsica, where 
he was born in 1769. The career of this extraordinary 
man, surpassed in many respects, that of every great con- 
queror, who. preceded him. In his 27th year, lie was raised 
to the omraand of the French army; at the age of 30, he 
caused himself to be elected first consul; and in his 35th 
year, he was proclaimed emperor of France. During the 
ten years thai he possessed the imperial throne, he was the 
most powerful potentate, not only of his age, but of mod- 
ern times, and made the world tremble at the terror of his 
name. He raised to the rank of kings, his three brothers, 
his brother-in-law, and three German electors; also Bera- 
adotte, one of his generals, was raised to the throne of 
Sweden. He united in his person the three-fold character 
of conqueror, usurper, and legislator. He triumphed over 
civilized enemies; legislated in a refined age; and seized 
upon the scepters of his most powerful rivals. To him, 
France is indebted for an admirable code of laws, in the 
formation of which, he was the efficient agent. No man 
ever enjoyed a greater opportunity of benefitting his fellow 
man than Buonaparte ; yet this opportunity was cast away, 
except so far as it suited his insatiable ambition and lust of 
power, to which he was ready to sacrifice every principle 
of justice and humanity. He chose to be an Alexander, or 
a Csesar, rather than a Washington ; a subverter, rather 
than a protector of liberty ; a terror and a scourge, rather 
than a delight and a blessing to mankind. The close of his 
eventful life, furnishes a most instructive lesson on the insta- 



432 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

bility of all human things, and the vanity of human glory. 
He died on the island of St. Helena, un the 5th of May, 
1821, in the 6ih year of his captivity, and 52d of his age. 
(For the principal events of his life, see France.) 

Cain, the first born of the human family, was distin- 
guished for his wickedness and for being the first of mur- 
derers ; he killed his brother Abel through jealousy, be- 
cause his brother's sacrifice was more acceptable to the 
Lord than his own. Nothing is mentioned in scripture of 
the time or manner of his death. 

Cato, an illustrious Roman general who took part against 
Caesar. After the batde of Pharsalia, he returned to Utica ; 
but finding it impossible to resist the power of the conquer- 
or, he resolved not to survive the liberty of his country. 
After supping cheerfully with his friends, he returned to his 
chamber, and having read Plato's dialogue on the immor- 
tality of the soul several times, he stabbed himself with his 
own sword. 

Cecrops, a native of Egypt, who led a colony into Greece 
and laid the foundation of Athens, A. C. 155G. He taught 
his subjects the cultivation of the olive, and was the first 
who raised an altar to Jupiter, and offered sacrifices to him. 
He reigned over the country for 50 years, and on his death 
he was succeeded by Cranaus. 

Cadmus, "a Phoenician who built Thebes, and was the first 
who introduced letters into Greece. His alphabet consisted 
of only sixteen letters, to which eight were afterwards added. 

Cicero, Marcus 7'idlius, the prince of Roman orators 
and philosophers, was the son of a Roman knight. His 
father perceiving his promising abilities, procured for him 
the most celebrated masters of his time. He served one 
campaign under Sylla, but on his return to Rome appeared 
as pleader at the bar, where the greatness of his genius 
and superior eloquence soon raised him into notice. Hav- 
ing passed through the inferior honors of the state, he was 
at length elevated to the office of consul ; and during his 
administration, he detected and crushed the conspiracy of 
Cataline. On this occasion he received the thanks of the 
people, and was styled the father of his country; but his 
refusal to second the arbitrary measures of Caesar and 
Pompey caused his banishment; he retired to Greece but 
was allowed to return after an absence of sixteen months. 
After the death of Caesar, he again espoused the republican 
party, and thus incurred the hatred of Antony, one of the 
leading members of the triumvirate, by whose order the 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 433 

illustrious orator was assassinated in the 64th year of his 
age, A. C. 43. 

Caesar, Caius Julius, this extraordinary man united 
in his person the three fold character of warrior, historian 
and statesman. Though ambition was his ruling passion, 
yet he possessed the most splendid endowments i.f genius, 
and many noble qualities of the heart ; clemency seems to 
have been his predominant virtue. On passing a small vil- 
lage among the Alps, on his way to take possession of his 
government in Spain, before the formation of the triumvi- 
rate, he remarked, that tk he would rather be the first man 
in that village than the second man in Rume." He fre- 
quently made use of this verse of Euripedes : "That if 
right and justice were ever to be violated, they were to be 
violated for the sake of reigning." In his military career, 
he was probably never surpassed. He was so much the 
idol of his troops, that in any important conjuncture, his 
lieutenant could say nothing more impressive to them than 
44 Soldiers, imagine that Caesar beholds you !" He fought 
no less than 50 battles, in which 1,192,000 men are said to 
have been slain. In the midst of his military enterprises, 
he found time to become the author of several wo.ks, of 
which only the memoirs of his wars are now exiant ; these 
are much admired for their elegance as well as the correct- 
ness of style. As an orator, he would have rivalled Cicero 
had he devoted himself to the bar ; he spuke with the 
same spirit with which he fought. He was assassinated in 
the senate house in the 56th year of his age, A. C. 44. 
(For his achievements, see Rome.) 

Cowper, William, a celebrated English poet, was born 
hi the year 1730. In the early part of his life, he was af- 
flicted with a distressing melancholy brought on by serious 
reflection on religious subjects ; on one occasion he even 
attempted his life. He did not become an author until the 
age of 50 years. The first volume of his poems appeared 
in 1782, and the second volume in 1785. His most ad- 
mired work is his Task, which abounds with beauty of 
sentiment, combined with harmony and sweetness of style. 
Cowper died in 1800 ; aged 70. 

Calvin, John, a coadjutor of Luther in the Reformation, 
was born at Noyon, in Picardy, July 10th, 1509. He 
spent most of his active life at Ceneva, where he filled the 
chair of professor of divinity, and warmly espoused the 
cause of the Keformation. He died in 1564. 



434 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

Cobbett, William.. This distinguished man was born 
in England in the year 1762, of humble parentage, and 
possessed but few advantages for education, in early life, 
he followed the profession of arms as a common soldier, 
but employed his leisure moments in attentive reading. He 
soon emerged from this situation, and appeared in public as 
a bold and elegant writer. The general characteristics of 
his style are puriiy, perspicuity and masculine vigor ; fre- 
quently eloquent, but often attended with a strain of tor- 
turing sarcasm, contemptuous jocularity and fierce invective. 
Cobbett is by far the most voluminous writer who has lived 
for centuries. He died in 1835. 

Copernicus, Nicholas, an eminent astronomer and the 
discoverer of the true system of the universe, was born at 
Thome, in Prussia. He early devoted himself to the study 
of mathematics, applied his knowledge to an examination 
of the different theories respecting the universe; and alter 
twenty years of profound investigation, he arrived at this im- 
portant truth tiiat the sun is placed in the centre u£ the uni- 
verse to illuminate and control the whole system. For vari- 
ous reasons he concealed this great discovery for thirty years. 
At length, through the importunities of his friends, he con- 
sented to have his work published; as soon as completed, 
a copy of it was brought to him, and in a few hours af- 
terwards lie was seized with a violent effusion of blood, 
which terminated his life in the 70th vear of his age, A. 
D. 1543. 

Columbus, Christopher, an eminent navigator, and dis- 
coverer of America, was born at Genoa, in 1442. At the 
age of fourteen he entered on a seafaring life, and after a 
variety of adventures, he went to Lisbon, where he married 
the daughter of Perestrello, a navigator of considerable 
eminence, whose journals were peculiarly beneficial to Col- 
umbus. At this period the attention of the Portuguese was 
directed towards finding a passage to the East Indies; this 
they expected to attain by doubling the Cape of Good 
Hope, and then sailing towards the East. Inflamed by 
the desire of accomplishing so noble an enterprise, the ac- 
tive mind of Columbus, after attentively comparing the ob- 
servations of modern pilots with the conjectures of the an- 
cients, at length concluded, that by sailing directly west 
from Europe across the Atlantic, new countries which he 
supposed to Ibrm a part Asia, must infallibly be discovered. 
The spherical figure of the earth was known, and its mag- 
nitude ascertained with some degree of accuracy ; and Sir 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 435 

John Mandeville had even demonstrated that it might be 
circumnavigated. Convinced of the correctness of his 
theory, Columbus was anxious to test it by experiment. 
At length, after many delays, he obtained assistance from 
Isabella, queen of Spain, and on the 3rd of August, 1492, 
sailed on his voyage of discovery. On the 11 in of Octo- 
ber, the same year, he came in sight of an island, to which 
he gave the name of St. Salvador, one of the Bahamas ; 
he also discovered Cuba and St. Domingo, which he cal- 
led Hispaniola, and returned in May of the following year. 
He made three other voyages to the New World, in the 
last of which he was shipwrecked on the coast of Jamai- 
ca. Here for a time he obtained astonishing command over 
the Indians by predicting an eclipse of the moon. He died 
shortly after his return to Spain, at Valladolid, in the 70th 
year of his age, A. D. 1506. (For further particulars, 
see Mmerica.) 

Dido was the daughter of Belus, king of Tyre. Her 
husband was murdered by Pygmalion, the successor of Be- 
lus. The disconsolate princess, with a number of Tyrians, 
set sail in- quest of a settlement. A storm drove them upon 
the coast of Africa, where they founded the city of Car- 
thage. Her beauty and the fame of her enterprise, gained 
her many admirers; her subjects wished to compel her to 
marry the king of Mauritania, but she killed herself rather 
than enter into a matrimonial alliance with one for whom 
she could entertain no affection. 

Dryden, John, a celebrated English poet, was born in 
the year 1631. He first exhibited his poetical powers in 
an eulogium on Oliver Cromwell; and this was followed, 
in 1660, by a poem, " on the happy return and restoration 
of his sacred majesty, Charles II." On the accession of 
James II., he became a Roman Catholic, and was contin- 
ued in the appointment of Poet Laureat, which he had 
held under Charles. After the revolution, he was deprived 
of all his honors, and from that time until his death, he was 
obliged to rely for subsistence, on the immediate profits of 
his poetical productions. His Ode on St. Cecilia's Day, 
his translation of Virgil, Juvenal, and Perseus, are lasting 
proofs of his poetical genius. His style is flowing and 
musical, at the same time, grand and energetic. He died 
in the year 1700. 

Demosthenes, the prince of orators, was born at Athens. 
His early education was much neglected, through the 
treachery of his guardians, who squandered away his pro- 



436 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

perty. Perhaps no individual ever aspired to the art of or- 
atory with more impediments to overcome than Demos- 
thenes ; and no one ever attained to a higher excellence in 
that art. Besides an impediment in his speech, he had a 
weak voice, accompanied with a shortness of breath; the 
movements of his body, moreover, were most ungraceful. 
That he might remedy the imperfection in his speech, he 
accustomed himself to declaim with pebbles in his mouth ; 
and in order to strengthen his voice and lungs, he frequent- 
ly harangued on the sea shore, where the agitation of the 
waves caused him to exert his utmost strength, that he 
might be heard above the noise, and at the same time serv- 
ed to give him an idea of the commotion of popular as- 
semblies ; and finally, he corrected the awkwardness of his 
gesture, by speaking before a mirror, and by taking lessons 
from the most accomplished comedians. That he might 
apply himself more to his studies, he retired to a cave, and 
shaved one half of his head, so that he could not decently 
appear abroad. Having thus qualified himself, he came 
forth from his retreat, and presented himself before the pub- 
lic. His great abilities as an orator, soon placed him at the 
head of the government, where he exerted all the powers 
of his eloquence against the ambitious designs of Philip, 
king of Macedon. His orations against that prince, are 
called Philippics, a name since applied to all satiracal pro- 
ductions. On the death of Alexander, Demosthenes once 
more endeavored to rouse his countrymen to an effort for 
the recovery of their liberty; the attempt was ineffectual, 
and Athens was obliged to purchase peace by the sacrifice 
often of her public speakers. Demosthenes, to avoid fall- 
ing into the hands of his enemies, suffered a voluntary 
death by taking poison, in the 60th year of his age, A. 
D. 322. 

Eve, the name of the first woman ; she was formed by 
the Creator, of a rib taken from the side of Adam, while 
in a deep sleep; thus she became the "bone of his bones, 
and the flesh of his flesh," and was given to him as his 
wife. She was the first transgressor; being deceived by 
Satan in the form of a serpent, she eat of the forbidden 
fruit, and offered it to her husband, who also followed her 
example. In punishment for this offense, she was banish- 
ed from Paradise with Adam, and subjected to all the mis- 
eries that have since afflicted the human family. 

Euripides, an eminent tragic poet of Greece, was born 
at Salamis. As a poet, he is peculiarly happy in exprefs- 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 437 

ing the passions of love, particularly the more tender and 
animated ; his thoughts are sublime, and his productions 
abound with many moral reflections. He spent the latter 
(lays of his life at the court of Archelaus, king of Mace- 
donia. His end was tragical ; in one of his solitary walks, 
he was attacked and devoured by the hounds of the king, 
in the 78th year of his age, A. D. 407. 

Euclid, the greatest mathematician of. antiquity, was 
born at Alexandria, and flourished near 300 years before 
the Christian era. His writings were numerous ; but his 
15 books on the elements of mathematics, which consist 
of problems and theorems, with demonstrations, have ac- 
quired an imperishable fame, and have suffered but little al- 
teration to the present time. 

Franklin, Benjamin. This distinguished philosopher 
and discoverer of electricity, was born at Boston, in 1706. 
In youth, he was apprenticed to an uncle in the printing 
business. As his occupation allowed him but little time 
for study, he supplied the deficiency by carefully reading 
at night, the works which he had printed during the day, 
and by this means soon acquired extensive information. 
He was a member of the American Congress during the 
eventful period of the Revolution. As a public negotiator, 
he effectually secured the honor and the interest of the 
country. He died in 1790, while governor of Pennsylva- 
nia, at the advanced age of 84 years. His discoveries in 
science have associated his name with that of Newton. He 
is the father of that branch of philosophy, which explains 
the laws of the electric fluid, and the utility of lightning 
rods will forever point to him as a temporal benefactor of 
the human race. 

Gibbon, Edward, an eminent English historian, was 
born at Putney, in 1737. His most important work is his 
" Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire/' which he com- 
pleted after twenty year's labor. It is an elaborate produc- 
tion and generally accurate. In principle, he was a decided 
skeptic and unbeliever ; f he wrote with a view of establish- 
ing his principles; hence throughout his works the seeds 
of infidelity are widely disseminated, a fact which renders 
his productions highly dangerous to the un cautious reader. 
He scoffs at Christianity, and- endeavors to turn it to ridi- 
cule whenever an opportunity offers. He died of the drop- 
sy in 1794. 

Galileo, an Italian, distinguished for his discoveries in 
mathematics and astronomy. He embraced the Oopernican 



438 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

system, which he endeavored to establish from the Bible. 
For thus attempting- to blend his astronomical theories with 
the sacred writings, he was summoned before the tribunal 
of the inquisition at Rome. Some years after this, he pub- 
lished his Dialogues and Memoirs, in which he again en- 
deavored to raise the system of the rotation of the earth to 
the dignity of a dogmatical tenet. Being again cited before 
the tribunal at Rome, he was lodged in the palace of Tus- 
cany, and for a short time in the apartment of the attorney- 
general. After having received his sentence and made his 
recantation, Galileo obtained permission to visit his native 
country, where he died at the advanced age of 78 years. 

Goldsmith, Oliver. This eminent poet, historian and 
miscellaneous writer, was born in Ireland in 1729. He 
made a tour through Europe on foot, and supported himself 
by playing on the flute. Having at length returned to Lon- 
don, he commenced his literary career. The publication 
of The Traveller, in 1765, obtained for him a high poeti- 
cal celebrity, with many distinguished friends. The De- 
serted Village, the most admired of his poetical produc- 
tions, was published in 1769. His comedies, The Good 
nalured Man, and She Stoops to Conquer, are also much 
admired. His History of Rome, History of England, and 
History of Animated Nature, with the Vicar of Wake- 
field, are among his principal works. He died in the 46th 
year of his age. j^jg \\{ e am \ character were eccentric, but 
interesting. Generosity, carelessness and imprudence, were 
the distinguishing features of his disposition. His prodi- 
gality always kept him in poverty. Sweetness of fancy 
and tenderness of feeling, are the peculiar features of poe- 
try. His expression is natural and idiomatic, yet in the 
highest degree, select and refined. 

Guttenburg, John, the inventor of the art of printing. 
It has been contended that Lewis Coster, of Haarlem, in- 
vented the use of moveable type ; but it seems that opinion 
is without foundation, and that the art of printing, as prac- 
ticed at present, was discovered by Guttenberg, of May- 
ence, about the year 1438, although it was several years 
after this period, before the art was brought to any perfec- 
tion. In 1550, Guttenberg entered into partnership at 
Mayence, with John Fust. It was about this period, that 
the method of casting the character in metal was discovered. 
This improvement is supposed to have been made by 
SchasfTer, who assisted them at this time. The first prin- 
ters carried their types about in bags, and printed small 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES, 439 

pamphlets anil the like. The first fntire book issued from 
their press, was the Psalter in Latin, printed at iMentz, in 
1457, of which there are two copies yet extant, one in ihe 
imperial library at Vienna, the other purchased by Louis 
XVIII. of France, for the sum of 12.000 francs. A com- 
plete edition of the Bible in Latin, was printed in two folio 
vols., at Menlz, in the year 1462. From this epoch, the 
progress of typography was rapid, and before the close of 
the fifteenth century, various editions of the Bible, with a 
vast number of other works, were published in different 
parts of Europe. 

Homer, was not only the greatest of the Greek poets, 
but also the earliest, whose works have survived the devas- 
tations of time. He is regarded as the most ancient of all 
profane classical writers. The place of his nativity is un- 
known ; several cities claim the honor of having given him 
birth. Little is known of his parentage, or his circumstan- 
ces of life : but it is generally agreed that he was a ivander- 
ing poet, and that he was blind, at least towards the close 
of his life. His greatest poems are Iliad and Odyssey. 
The Arudelian marbles fix the period in which he flourished 
at 907, before the Christian era. 

Herodotus, a celebrated historian, was born at Halicar- 
nassus, and is styled the father of history. His most cele- 
brated work, describes the wars of the Greeks against the 
Persians, from the age of Cyrus to the battle of Mycale, 
His style abounds with elegance, ease and sweetness. 

Hippocrates, styled the father of medicine, was born in 
the island of Cos. He devoted his whole attention to medi- 
cal applications ; his writings, a few fragments of which 
remain, procured him the epithet of divine. He died at 
the age of 99 years, A. C. 361. 

Hesiod, an eminent Greek poet, who is supposed to have 
flourished about the time of Homer. His greatest produc- 
tion is a poem on agriculture, which contains many moral 
reflections, mingled with instructions for cultivating the 
fields. His Theogony, another poem, gives a faithful des- 
cription of the gods of antiquity. So partial were the 
Greeks to his moral productions, that they required their 
children to commit them to memory. 

Horace, the greatest of the Roman lyric poets; he 
studied at Rome and afterwards at Athens. He accom- 
panied Brutus in the civil wars, and at the battle of Phil- 
ippi, he saved his life by flight. From this period he de- 
voted himself to writing verses; and his talents soon re- 



440 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

commended him to the patronage of Augustus. He died 
in the 57th year of his age, A. C. 8. 

Hume, David, an historian of some eminence, was born 
at Edinburg, in Scotland, in 1711. He was designed by 
his father for the law, but the turn of his mind led him to 
literary pursuits. His principal works are his treatise on 
Human Nature, his Inquiries concerning the Principles 
of Morals, and his English History. In principle, Humt, 
like Gibbon, was a decided skeptic and unbeliever; hence 
we find the principles of infidelity inculcated throughout 
his writings. His history, though possessing considerable 
merits in perspicuity and purity of style, is far from being 
accurate in many particulars. He died in 1776. 

Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated composer of music, was 
born of humble parentage in Austria, in 1733. He went 
to England where he published several of his musical 
works, in consequence of which the degree of doctor of 
music was conferred on him by the University of Oxford. 
In 1796, he returned to Germany, where he composed his 
sublime oratorios of The Creation, and The Seasons. His 
other publications are various and valuable. He died at the 
advanced age of 76, in 1809. 

Henry, Patrick, the great American orator, was born in 
the colony of Virginia in 1736. In the early part of his 
life, he was passionately addicted to pleasure, and averse to 
toil, even to the labor of study. He married at the age of 
18, and settled on a farm, but agriculture as well as mer- 
cantile pursuits, in which he subsequently engaged, prov- 
ing unsuccessful, he turned his attention towards the law, 
and after six weeks preparatory study, he was admitted to 
practice. Fie served his country in various posts. In 
1765, he was elected a member of the Virginia legislature, 
and introduced his celebrated resolutions on the Stamp 
Act; he afterwards bore a distinguished part in the period 
of the Revolution. He died at the age of 61, in 1797. 

Isaiah, the Prophet, was the son of iVmos. He prophe- 
sied upwards of 700 years before the Christian era. He 
was the greatest and most sublime of all the prophets. He 
boldly censured the vices of his time, and according to the 
Hebrew tradition, he was put to death by being sawed in 
two, during the reign of king Manasse. 

Jural is spoken of in the Scripture as "the father of 
such as handled the harp or organ ; a fact which proves 
that music must have been one of the earliest arts known 
and taught among men. 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 441 

Joshua, the successor of Moses, led the people of Israel 
into the promised land, and having divided the country 
among the ten tribes, he died in the 110th year of his age. 

Joseph, the patriarch, was one of the twelve sons of Ja- 
cob, whose eventful life is so pathetically described in the 
scripture. He was sold by his brothers to merchants, who 
carried him into Egypt, where, through the interposition of 
heaven, he finally became the ruler of that country, under 
Pharaoh. The triumph of his innocence, as the reward 
of his piety, proves the care of God manifested towards 
the virtuous, and should lead them to place their confidence 
in his protection under the most trying scenes of life. 

Johnson, Samuel, an eminent lexicographer, critic and 
essayist, was born at Litchfield, 1709. He commenced his 
education at Oxford, but owing to the insolvency of his 
father, he was obliged to leave the university prematurely. 
Involved in poverty, and without any prospect before him, 
after trying various expedients to obtain a livelihood, he 
went to London in quest of employment, in 1737. From 
this period until 1763, he was engaged in literary labors, 
under the pressure of poverty and disappointment. On 
one occasion he was arrested for a debt of five guineas, from 
which he was relieved by the kindness of a friend. His 
first important work, was his celebrated English Diction- 
ary, which he completed in the space of seven years, and for 
which he received only the sum of s6l575. The Rambler, 
and The Lives of Poets, are among some of his principal 
productions. He died in 1784, aged 75 years. 

Jefferson, Thomas. This eminent statesman was born 
at Shad well, Virginia, in 1743. He was elected a member 
of the continental congress in 1775, and was one of the 
committee appointed to draw up the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, which document, with few alterations, was his 
own composition. In 1801, he was elected to the office of 
president of the United States, and after serving to the ex- 
piration of his second term, he retired from public life to 
his seat at Monticello, where he died on the 4th of July, 
1827. In private life, he was hospitable and agreeable in 
his manners ; in public, the uncompromising, sagacious, 
and talented leader of the democratic party. 

Jackson, General Andrew. This distinguished man 
was born on the 16th of March, 1767, in the Waxhaw set- 
tlement, South Carolina. His parents were emigrants from 
Ireland, and followed the industrious occupation of farm- 
ing. Andrew, while yet in his infancy, was bereft of his 
19 



442 BIOGRAFIIY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

father, and left with two elder brothers, to the care of a de- 
voted mother. During the war of the revolution, Jackson, 
though young, partook largely of the calamities of that 
eventful period. One of his. brothers was slain in the bat- 
tle of Stono ; he himself, with the other brother, was taken 
prisoner, and carried to Camden. During his captivity, 
Andrew was ordered by a British officer, to wipe the mud 
off his boots, which he peremptorily refused to do, demand- 
ing the treatment due to a prisoner of war. The officer, 
enraged at this refusal, drew his sword and struck at the 
head of Jackson, who warded off the blow with his left 
hand, but received a wound, the mark of which he carried 
with him to his grave. His brother, for a similar offense, 
received a wound upon his head, inflicted by a sword, of 
which he eventually died. After the war, he turned his at- 
tention towards the law, and was admitted to practice at the 
age of twenty. In 1788, he located himself permanently 
at Nashville, Tennessee. In 1796, he was elected one of 
the members of a convention, assembled to frame a consti- 
tution for the state. In the following year he was sent to 
Congress, and the year after to the Senate of the United 
States, which situation he shortly resigned, not being satis- 
fied with his political duties at Washington. On his return 
from Congress, he was appointed one of the judges of the 
Supreme Court of Tennessee. During the late war he re- 
ceived the appointment of Major General in the regular 
army, and defeated the British on the 8th of January, 1815, 
in the memorable battle of New Orleans. In 1828 he was 
elected to the office of president of the United States. Af- 
ter the expiration of his second term, he retired again to 
the repose of the Hermitage, where he died on the 8th of 
June, 1845, in the 78th year of his age. 

Lucilius, an early Roman poet. He is considered as 
the first great satirical writer among the Romans; his pro- 
ductions are harsh and inelegant; of his thirty satires, only 
a few verses remain. He died at Naples in the 46ih year 
of his age. 

Lucretius, a Roman didactic poet. He studied at Athens 
and imbibed the tenets of Epicurus. In his poem on the 
nature of things, he advocates Atheism, and endeavors to 
establish the mortality of the soul. He is thought to have 
caused his own death in the 44th year of his age, A. C. 54. 

Livy, a distinguished Roman historian, who wrote the 
history of his country in 140 books, of which only 35 are 
extant. His style is clear and spirited ; his descriptions 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 443 

bold and concise. He died at Padua in the 67th year of 
his age, A. D. 17. 

Lycurgus, the great Spartan legislator, flourished about 
the year 884 before the Christian era. He was regent of 
Sparta during the minority of Charilaus, his nephew. 
After returning from his travels in Asia and Egypt, he 
framed the celebrated code of laws for his country, which 
rendered Sparta for so many ages one of the leading states 
of Greece. Having established his laws, and engaged the 
citizens not to alter them until his return, he left his coun- 
try, and by a voluntary death he rendered their establish- 
ment effectual. 

Locke, John, a celebrated English philosopher, was born 
in the year 1632. By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, 
he held a respectable situation under government, and wrote 
at that time several political tracts. His lordship being 
compelled to retire from England, on a charge of being 
concerned in Monmouth's rebellion, Locke also removed 
to Holland, where he devoted himself to literary pursuits, 
but subsequently returned to his native country, and pub- 
lished his Essay on the Human Mind. He died in the 
year 1704. 

Luther, Martin, the celebrated reformer, was born at 
Isleben, in Saxony, 1483. He was designed by his parents 
for a civilian, but the following awful incident directed his 
attention towards the church. As he was walking in the 
fields with a fellow-student, his companion was struck by 
lightning, and killed by his side. His mind was so much 
affected by this event, that he formed the resolution of re- 
tiring from the world. He accordingly entered into the or- 
der of Augustine Friars, at Erfurt. From this place he 
removed to Wittenberg, being appointed professor of di- 
vinity in the University, founded in that city by the elector 
of Saxony. In 1517, he commenced the Reformation, the 
particulars of which have been given under the head of the 
Christian Church. In 1524, he threw aside the monastic 
habit, and the following year married a nun ; he had three 
sons, whose 'descendants are still respected in Germany. 
Luther died at his native place in 1546. 

Methusalem is not known to have been remarkable for 
any thing except his age, having completed 969 years, the 
oldest of the human race. 

Menes, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy, was wor- 
shipped as a god after his death. He is supposed to have 



444 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

built the city of Memphis, and is said to have reigned 62 
years over Upper Egypt, and 35 over Lower Egypt. 

Melchisedec. Little is known of this personage. After 
the return of Abraham from an expedition against some of 
the neighboring princes, who had committed depredations 
on his territory, Melchisedec met and blessed him. The 
scriptural account, is in the following words : " But Mel- 
chisedec, the king of Salem, bringing forth bread and wine, 
for he was a priest of the Most High God, blessed him and 
said : Blessed be Abraham by the Most High God, who 
created heaven and earth; and he (Abraham) gave him 
tithes of all." 

Moses, the great law-giver of the Jews. In his infancy 
he was exposed on the banks of the Nile, in a small basket 
made of rushes ; in this situation he was found by the daugh- 
ter of Pharaoh, who saved his life, and adopted him as her 
own child. After having led the Israelites from the land of 
Egypt, and having given them the divine law at the foot of 
Mount Sinai, he died on Mount Nebo, at the age of 120 
years, after having taken a view of the promised land, A. 
C. 1447. 

Milton, John, the greatest of the epic poets of modern 
time, was born in London, 1G08. As a political writer, he 
has been much admired, but as a poet he has been justly 
celebrated as a compeer of Homer and Virgil. His Para- 
dise Lost, is the greatest poem which modern ages have 
produced. Towards the close of his life he became blind ; 
he suffered considerably from personal and political ene- 
mies, and finally died comparatively poor and forsaken by 
the world, A. D. 1674. 

Montgomery, General, a distinguished officer in the war 
of the Revolution. He fell in an attempt to storm the walls 
of Quebec. Few men have fallen in battle more regretted 
on both sides, than General Montgomery. He had engaged 
in the American cause from the purest principles ; he left 
the enjoyment of ease and the highest domestic happiness, 
in Ireland, his native land, to share the toils, the dangers, 
and the fortunes of a war, undertaken to defend the rights 
of a community, of which he was only an adopted mem- 
ber. 

Newton, Sir Isaac, one of the most illustrious and great- 
est philosophers and mathematicians that ever lived, was born 
at Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire, England. Having lost his 
father at an early period of his life, the utmost attention was 
bestowed on his education by his mother. He studied at 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 445 

Trinity College, and at the age of 22, discovered the method 
of fluxions, which he afterwards greatly improved. But 
his most important discovery was the principle of gravita- 
tion. He was led to the investigation of this principle by 
observing an apple fall from a tree ; by inquiring the rea- 
son, why it fell to the ground after leaving the stem, in 
preference to taking any other direction. He died in the 
85th year of his age, A. D. 1727. 

Noah, from whom the earth was a second time peopled, 
is considered by some as the Chronos of the Greek. His 
eminent piety procured for him and his family an exemp- 
tion from the awful calamity of the deluge. Having built 
the ark according to the divine direction, he entered it, tak- 
ing with him his wife, his three sons and their wives, to- 
gether with the various animals of the earth, and thus un- 
der the special care of God, survived the destruction of the 
world. He died 350 years after the deluge, at the advanced 
age of 950. 

Nimrod, a great warrior, is the first king we read of in 
authentic history. 

Ninus, an Assyrian monarch, who conquered a great part 
of Asia. He married the celebrated Semiramis, to whom 
he left his kingdom after a reign of 52 years. 

Orpheus, called the father of poetry, is said to have been 
the son of Apollo. The power of his music was such, as 
fiction reports, that at the strains of his lyre, the rivers 
were stayed in their course, the mountains were moved and 
the ferocity of wild beasts subdued. He is said to have 
been one of the Argonauts, of which celebrated expedition 
he wrote a poetical account; this however, is doubted ; and 
the poems that pass under his name, are supposed to have 
been written by a later author. Orpheus nourished 1284 
years before the Christian era. 

Ovid, a distinguished Roman poet, who flourished dur- 
ing the reign of Augustus, and under a part of the reign 
of Tiberius. The most of his poems are still extant; they 
are characterized by sweetness and elegance, though often 
debased by indelicate expressions. 

Ossian, a Caledonian bard. He is supposed to have 
nourished in the fourth century, and to have been the son 
of Fingal. He wrote in Gaelic ; and poems that go by 
his name, translated by Macpherson, are marked by a sim- 
ple and sublime wildness. 

Plutarch, an eminent biographer. His principal works 
are his Lives of Illustrious Men. Having travelled through 



446 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

Egypt and Greece in quest of knowledge, he returned to 
Rome, where he opened a school with great reputation. He 
enjoyed the special favor of the emperor Trajan, and after 
the death of his patron, he retired to his native place Chse- 
ronea, where he died, A. D. 140. 

Pindar, a Grecian lyric poet, was a native of Thebes. 
His composition were universally admired, and his hymns 
were repeated in the temples, at the celebration of the fes- 
tivals ; his odes, which have survived the wreck of time, 
are greatly admired for their grandeur of expression, mag- 
nificence of style and harmony of numbers. Pindar died 
at the age of 86, A. C. 435. 

Phidias, a Grecian, the most famous sculptor of antiqui- 
ty, was born at Athens. His statue of Jupiter Olympius, 
passed for one of the wonders of the world. That of 
Minerva, in the Pantheon of Athens, measured 39 feet in 
height, and was made of gold and ivory. He died A. C. 
432. 

Polybiijs, a learned historian, who wrote the history of 
the Greeks and Romans. He fought against the Romans 
in the war of Perseus, and being made prisoner he was 
brought to Rome, where he was befriended by the younger 
Scipio. He was present at the siege of Carthage, and after 
the destruction of that city, he retired to Megalopolis, where 
he died in his 82d year, A. C. 124. 

Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher, was born at Samos. 
He travelled through Egypt and other countries, and finally 
settled at Crotona, where his universal knowledge gained 
him many friends and admirers. The world is indebted to 
him for the demonstration of the 47th proposition of Eu- 
clid, respecting the square of hypothenuse. The time and 
place of his death are unknown. 

Plato, an eminent Grecian philosopher, called the divine, 
was for eight years the pupil of Socrates. He taught in 
the grove of Academus, near Athens, where he was attend- 
ed by a crowd of noble and illustrious pupils. His works 
are numerous, and generally in the form of dialogues. 
The ancients and even the learned of modern times, have 
admired and studied the writings of this great philosopher. 
They display great depth of thought, with elegance and 
harmony of expression. Among other truths, he maintains 
by many powerful arguments, the immortality of the soul. 
He died in the 81st year of his age, A. C. 348. 

Pliny, the elder, was born at Verona, of a noble family; 
he is the earliest writer on natural history, whose works 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 447 

are extant. To his public duties he attended through the 
day, but devoted himself to study during a portion of the 
night. His work on Natural History was comprised in 37 
books. He is said to have written 169 volumes of remarks 
and annotations on various authors, but these have not sur- 
vived the wreck of time. His love of knowledge cost him 
his life. During an eruption of Vesuvius, he was induced 
to approach the mountain, for the purpose of making his 
observations on this interesting phenomenon. While thus 
employed, he was overtaken by the burning lava and per- 
ished," A. D. 79. 

Pope, Alexander, an eminent English poet, was born in 
London in 1688. At the age of 20, he published his Es- 
say on Criticism, a production which evinces all the reflec- 
tions of a more mature age. The Temple of Fame, Rape 
of the Lick, the D uncial, and Essay on Man, are among 
his most celebrated productions. His translation of Ho- 
mer's Ilia I, is still read and universally admired. In per- 
son, Pope was diminutive and somewhat crooked. In dis- 
position he was fretful, but his manners were easy and his 
wit fascinating. He died in his native city, at the age of 
56 years. 

Pitt, William, a distinguished statesman and orator, was 
earl of Chatham, and born in the year 1708. Being elected 
to parliament at the age of 27, he was soon distinguished 
for his eloquence, and early enlisted in the ranks of the op- 
position. In 1756, he was appointed Secretary of State, 
but his continuance in office was of short duration. His 
popularity, however, was with the mass of the nation, and 
he was recalled to the Secretaryship in 1757. He depre- 
cated with all the power of his eloquence, measures relat- 
ing to the American war, in the house of lords. His con- 
stitution was at this time so enfeebled, that on one occa- 
sion, as he rose to speak, he fell into a swoon and died in 
a few days in the 70th year of his age. As an orator and 
statesman, he is perhaps, unrivaled in modern times ; the 
music and majesty of his voice, the gracefulness of his 
action, the power of his eye, carried conviction with his 
arguments. It is said that Walpole, the minister, though 
supported by a decided majority, never heard his voice in 
the house of commons without being alarmed. 

Quintilian, an eminent rhetorician, was a native of 
Spain. After 20 years employed in teaching rhetoric, and 
pleading at the bar at Rome, he retired from public life and 
devoted himself to composition. His institutions in twelve 



448 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

books form the most perfect system of oratory extant. He 
died A. I). 95. 

Romulus, the founder and the first king of Rome, was 
the son of Rhea Sylvia, and born at the same birth with 
Remus. He was distinguished as a legislator, though his 
institutions were almost exclusively of a warlike tendency. 
We are fabulously told, that he was taken up to heaven 
whilst reviewing his army, although it is generally believed 
that he was killed by the senators. The Romans paid di- 
vine honors to him under the name of Quirinns. 

Raphael, an eminent painter, was born at Urbino, in 
1483. By studying the best masters in painting, he soon 
rose to eminence, and merited the appellation of the divine 
Baphael. He also excelled as an architect, and was em- 
ployed in the building of St. Peter's at Rome. By the 
general consent of mankind, he was acknowledged as the 
greatest of painters ; he excelled particularly in beauty and 
grace. He died at the age of 37 ; his death is said to have 
been hastened by intemperate habits. 

Rousseau, John James, was born at Geneva in 1712. 
He was of a weakly constitution, but his mind was strong 
and active, and the early reading of Plutarch and Tacitus, 
tended to expand his ideas and to inspire him with courage. 
Though equally skeptical with Hume and Voltaire, yet he 
quarreled with the former who had been his protector in 
England, and incurred the displeasure' of the latter, for 
maintaining the immoral tendency of the stage, although 
lie himself had written for it. He died at his native 
place, Geneva, in the 66th year of his age. His works 
prove him to have been a man of transcendent genius, but 
at the same time exhibit the utmost eccentricity, joined with 
licentiousness and skepticism. He has been called the Diog- 
enes of modern times. 

Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet of Greece, the co- 
temporary and rival of Euripides, was born about 497, 
A. C. Towards the close of his life, being accused of in- 
sanity by his children, who wished to obtain his posses- 
sions, the poet composed and read his tragedy of (Edipus, 
and then asked his judges whether the author of such a 
performance could be insane: he was immediately acquit- 
ted, to the confusion of his ungrateful offspring. He died 
in his 91st year of excessive joy, on hearing that he had 
obtained a poetical prize at the Olympic games. 

Socrates, was a native of Athens. In early life he fol- 
lowed the profession of his father, who was a statuary ; he 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 449 

also for some time followed the profession of a soldier. But 
he is far more distinguished as a philosopher and moralist, 
than as a warrior. He was remarkable for the mildness of 
his disposition, and acquired that serenity of mind and firm- 
ness of countenance which the most alarming dangers could 
not destroy, nor the most sudden calamities alter. He in- 
culcated the purest principles of morality and supported the 
doctrine of the immortality of the soul. Being accused 
by his enemies on a false charge of corrupting the youth of 
Athens, he was condemned to death; accordingly he drank 
the juice of the hemlock, and calmly expired in the 70th 
year of his age, A. C. 401. 

Solon, the great Athenian legislator and one of the wise 
men of Greece, was born at Salamis and educated at Athens. 
Having been elected archon, he reformed every department 
of the government. He instituted the jUreopagus, regu- 
lated the Prytaneum, and his laws continued to nourish for 
near 400 years. He died in the 80th year of his age, A. C. 
558. 

Sappho, a celebrated Greek poetess and inventor of the 
Sapphic verse, was born in the island of Lesbos, about 600 
years before the Christian era. She was celebrated for her 
poetical talents and beauty. Her poems were much ad- 
mired for their sublimity, harmony, sweetness and elegance; 
but of all her productions only a few fragments are now 
extant. 

Solomon, the wisest of mankind, was the son of David, 
king of Israel. The early part of his life was distinguished 
for exemplary piety, but he afterwards fell even into idola- 
try. He married no less than 1,000 wives, 700 of whom 
held the title of queens* It is believed that he repented be- 
fore his death. The temple which he built at Jerusalem 
rendered his name memorable. He wrote the books of 
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles. He died in the 
58th year of his age and 40th of his reign, A. C. 975. 

Semiramis, a female conqueror, celebrated for her beauty 
and heroic mind. In her infancy, she is said to have been 
exposed in the desert, but her life was preserved a whole 
year by doves. After the death of her husband Ninus, the 
Assyrian monarch, she assumed the reins of government, 
and immortalized her name by enlarging and embellishing 
the city of Babylon. She also extended her dominions by 
the conquest of a part of Ethiopia ; but her greatest and 
last expedition, was directed against India. Having ad- 
vanced to the banks of the Indus, she crossed the river 
19* 



450 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

with her army after a sanguinary contest, on a bridge of 
boats, but was finally defeated and fled with precipitation 
to her own dominions. Having discovered that her son 
had entered into a conspiracy against her, she abdicated 
the throne in his favor, and died after a reign of 42 years. 

Samson, one of the Judges of Israel, was endowed with 
extraordinary strength. On one occasion he slew 1000 
Philistines, with the jaw-bone of an ass. The secret of 
his strength, which lay in his hair, was at length discover- 
ed by his wife Delilah, who treacherously cut off his hair 
while he was asleep, and thus rendered him powerless. 
In this state he was taken by his enemies, who deprived 
him of his sight, and retained him a prisoner. In the mean 
time his hair increased, and with it his strength also re- 
turned. On a certain occasion, as the Philistines were 
holding a festival in the temple of Dagon, Samson was 
brought in for their amusement ; but by an effort of his 
strength, he pulled down the pillars supporting the edifice, 
and perished with 3,000 of his enemies in the general ruin. 

Stabo, a celebrated geographer and historian, was a na- 
tive of Amasia, and died A. D. 25. His geographical work 
in 17 books is the only one now remaining. It is written 
in Greek and is justly considered an elegant and classical 
production. 

Seneca, Lucius, a celebrated moralist and philosopher 
was born at Cordova, in Spain. He became early distin- 
guished for his abilities, and acquired considerable emi- 
nence for his eloquence in pleading at the bar. He was 
intrusted with the education of Nero, and while the young 
emperor was guided by the counsels of his illustrious pre- 
ceptor, he governed with universal approbation. But at 
length becoming impatient of the restraint imposed on his 
vicious inclinations, he pretended that Seneca had conspir- 
ed with Piso against his life, and sent a messenger to in- 
form him that he must die; permitting him at the same 
time to choose the manner of his death. The philosopher 
received the mandate with cheerfulness, and ordered the 
veins of his legs and arms to be opened ; but as the blood 
flowed extremely slow, his life was at length terminated 
by warm vapor, in the 72nd year of his age, A. D. 65. 

Sallust, a Roman historian. He was a man of de- 
praved and licentious manners. Of his Roman history, 
the conspiracy of Catiline and the wars of Jugurtha, are 
the only portions extant. He died in the 51st year of his 
age, A. C. 35. 



BIOGRAPHY OP EMINENT PERSONAGES. 451 

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley. This celebrated wit, 
statesman and orator, was born in the city of Dublin, in 
1751. At an early age, he married Miss Linley, a beauti- 
ful young lady; but he did not obtain her without some 
difficulty, being obliged to fight two duels, with a Captain 
Matthews on her account. On the conclusion of Mr. Sher- 
idan's speech on the impeachment of Mr. Hastings, the 
whole assembly, members, peers, and strangers, in West- 
minster Hall joined in a tumultuous burst of applause. 
A motion was immediately made to adjourn, in order that 
the members might recover from the effect of his overpow- 
ering eloquence. Sheridan undermined his constitution 
by intemperance, and died in needy circumstances. 

Spenser, Edmund, an eminent English poet, flourished 
during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by whom he was 
employed for some time in public life. His most celebra- 
ted production is his Fairy Queen. He died at London, 
in 1598. 

Shakespeare, William, the greatest of the dramatic 
poets, was born in England in the year 1564. He came 
to London at an early age, and first enlisted among the 
players and became an actor on the stage. He however, 
shortly afterwards applied himself to dramatical writing, 
and soon gained an universal reputation. Towards the 
close of his life, he retired to his native place, where he 
died in the 53rd year of his age, A. D. 1617. As a writer 
of plays, he has never been surpassed ; he is admired for 
the beauty, elegance and simplicity of his style. His writ- 
ings however, are frequently interspersed with blemishes 
and moral defects. 

Swift, Jonathan, distinguished as a wit, poet, and prose 
writer, was born in Ireland in 1667. About the year 1694, 
he took, orders as a minister in the church of England, and 
as dean of Si Patricks in Dublin. After the accession of 
Queen Anne, he became deeply engaged in political con- 
troversy, and wrote some able political works. He died 
in 1745. Among other works, he was the author of Gul- 
liver's Travels and Tale of a Tub. Swift was eccentric 
in the extreme ; he delighted to differ from all other men, 
on those subjects in which all others agreed. Though mar- 
ried, he was never known to be in the company of his 
wife except in the presence of a third person. Whether 
he really believed in the truth of Christianity, is a subject 
of doubt. 



452 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 

Thales, was born at Miletus in Ionia. He was distin- 
guished for his high attainments in philosophy, geometry 
and astronomy. He was the first who calculated the solar 
eclipse, and the founder of the Ionic sect of philosophy. 
He died at the age of 96 years, A. C. 548. 

Theocritus, a pastoral poet, who flourished at Syracuse, 
A. C. 282. A few fragments of his poetical compositions, 
written in the Doric dialect, are yet extant, and admired 
for their beauty, elegance, and simplicity. He is said to 
have written several invectives against Hiero, king of Sy- 
racuse, by whose order he was put to death. 

Virgil, an illustrious Roman poet, was born in a village 
near Mantua, about 70 years before the Christian era. 
Having lost his farm in the distribution of the lands to the 
soldiers of Augustus, he repaired to Rome and procured 
the restoration of his property through the influence of 
Meceenas. His most celebrated writings are his Bucolics, 
Georgics, and the JEncid. He enjoyed the particular 
friendship and patronage of Augustus. He died at Brun- 
dusium in the 51st year of his age, A. C. 19. 

Varro, a learned Roman, who is said to have written 
no less than 300 volumes ; all of which are lost, except 
two fragments. He died at the age of 88 years, A. C. 28. 

Voltaire, Marie Francis, an eminent French poet and 
writer, was born in the year 1694. In early life he evinced 
superior powers of mind ; his fondness for satire, directed 
against the government, caused his imprisonment in the 
Bastile, from which he was at length liberated through the 
influence of the duke of Orleans. After this event, he de- 
voted himself more to the composition of poetry. His 
principal efforts were directed towards the drama; and his 
Alzire, Mahomet, and Merope, place him at the head of 
the dramatic poets of France. He spent much of his time 
at the court of Frederick II., king of Prussia ; but at length 
fixed his residence in a village on the borders of France. 
The boldness and extravagance of his writings often ex- 
posed him to danger, and compelled him at different times 
to retire from it. He died while on a visit to Paris, in the 
84th year of his age. His last moments are said to have 
been attended with the utmost horror, and dread at the re- 
flection of the irreligious and atheistical tendency of his 
writings, which have been regarded as one of the agents in 
bringing about the awful calamities that befell France. 

Washington, George. This illustrious general, patriot, 
and statesman, was born in the year 1732, in the county of 



BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 453 

Fairfax, Virginia. He was educated under the care of a 
private tutor, and distinguished himself for his progress in 
mathematics and engineering. The principal events of his 
life have been already noticed. After the struggle, which pro- 
cured the Independence of America, he resigned his military- 
command and again retired to the tranquility of private life. 
In 1789, he was called by the unanimous voice of his coun- 
trymen to fill the high office of President of the United 
States. Having filled that station a second term, or eight 
years, he declined the honor of being again re-elected, and 
returned to his peaceful residence of Mount Vernon, where 
he died after a few days illness, on the 14th of December, 
1799, in the 68th. year of his age. The history of his 
country is the best eulogium of this great man ; his most 
lasting monument, the love and admiration of the world. 
Washington never had any offspring. In his 27th year, 
he married Mrs. Custis ; a lady possessed of every accom- 
plishment that contributes to domestic felicity. At his 
death, he directed all his servants should be emancipated 
after Mrs. Washington's decease. 

Xenophon, a celebrated general, historian, and philoso- 
pher of Greece. He served in the army of Cyrus, the 
Younger, and chiefly conducted the retreat of the 10,000 
after the battle of Cunaxa. After this event, he continued 
the history of Thucydides, wrote the life of Cyrus, the 
Great, and collected the Memorabilia of Socrates. He died 
at Corinth in the 90th year of his age, A. C. 350. 

Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, 
was a native of Cyprus. The early part of his life was 
devoted to commercial pursuits ; but he at length turned his 
attention towards the study of philosophy, which he after- 
wards taught at Athens for 48 years, and died at the age of 
98, A. C. 264. 

N. B. The reader will find several names in the body of 
the work, referred to the Biography, which have been ac- 
cidentally omitted. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

OF 

REMARKABLE EVENTS, DISCOVERIES, AND INVEN- 
TIONS, FROM THE CREATION OF THE 
WORLD, TO THE YEAR 1840. 



B. C. 

4004 The Creation of the World, according to the He- 
brew text of the Scriptures. 

3875 Cain murders Abel. 

3017 Enoch translated to Heaven. 

2348 Universal Delude. 

2247 The Building of Babel ; the Dispersion of Mankind ; 
and the Confusion of Languages. 

2217 Nimrod supposed to have built Babylon, and founded 
the Babylonish Monarchy ; and Assur to have built 
Nineveh, and founded the Monarchy of Assyria. 

2188 Menes (in Scripture Misraim) founds the Monarchy 
of Egypt. 

1996 The Birth of Abram. 

1897 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed by fire from Hea- 
ven: 

1896 Isaac born. 

1836 Jacob and Esau born. 

1823 Death of Abraham. 

1716 Isaac dies. 

1635 Joseph dies in Egypt. 

1571 Moses born in Egypt. 

1556 Cecrops founds the kingdom of Athens. 

1546 Scamander founds the kingdom of Troy. 

1520 Corinth built. 

1493 Cadinus builds Thebes, and introduces Letters into 
Greece. 

1491 Moses brings the Israelites out of Egypt. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 455 

B. C. 

1452 The Pentateuch, or five Books of Moses, written. 
1451 The Israelites led into the land of" Canaan by Joshua. 
1434 Joshua dies. 
1207 Gideon, Judge of Israel. 
1193 The Trojan War begins. 
1184 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. 
1155 Samson born. 
1099 Samuel delivers Israel. 
1079 Saul, King of Israel. 
1055 David, King of Israel, begins his reign. 
1004 Dedication of Solomon's Temple. 
980 Rehoboam and Jeroboam begin to reign over Israel. 
955 Abijah, king of Judah, dies, and Asa succeeds him. 
914 Jehoshaphat succeeds his father Asa — Ahab, Ahazi- 

ah, and Jehoram, reign over Israel. 
869 The City of Carthage built by Dido. 
752 The foundation of Rome, by Romulus. 
724 Hezekiah, tenth king of Judah. 

721 Salmanazar takes Samaria, and carries the Ten Tribes 
into captivity, which puts an end to the Israelitish 
kingdom. 
711 Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invades Judea. 
708 Habakkuk prophesied. 
696 Manasseh, sixteenth king of Judah. 
658 Byzantium founded by Pausanias, king of Sparta. 
627 The Forty Years of Hezekiah began. 
610 Josiah slain. 
606 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and carries the 

Jews into captivity. 
601 End of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh taken by 

Nebuchadnezzar. 
600 Jeremiah prophesied. 
599 Birth of Cyrus the Great. 
588 The Jewish Capital and Temple are burned to the 

ground. 
572 Nebuchadnezzar subdues Egypt. 
551 Confucius, the Chinese Philosopher, born. 
538 Babylon taken by Cyrus. End of the Babylonian 

Empire. 
536 Cyrus ascends the throne of Persia. He puts an end 
to the Jewish Captivity, which had lasted seventy 
years. 
534 Daniel prophesied. 
529 Death of Cyrus the Great. 



456 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

B.C. 

520 The Jews begin to build the second Temple, which 
is finished in four years. 

508 The first Alliance between the Romans and Cartha- 
ginians. 

504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians. 

490 The Battle of Marathon, in which Miltiades defeats 
the Persians. 

488 The first Tribunes of the People created at Rome. 

486 Xerxes succeeds his father, Darius, in the kingdom 
of Persia. 

485 Coriolanus banished from Rome. 

480 The Spartans, under Leonidas, slain at Thermopylae. 

Naval Victory gained by the Greeks over the Per- 
sians, at Saiamis, 

476 Themistocles rebuilds Athens. 

A great Eruption at JEtna. 

456 Cincinnatus, Dictator at Rome. 

455 Commencement of the Seventy Prophetical Weeks 
of Daniel. 

452 The two books of Chronicles, supposed to have been 
written at this time by Ezra. 

431 The Peloponnesian War begins, which lasted twen- 
ty-seven years. 

430 The history of the Old Testament ends about this 
time. 

Malachi, the last of the Prophets. 

422 Sanballat builds a Temple on Mount -Gerizzim for 
Eleazar, his son-in-law. 

418 Disturbances at Rome on account of the Agrarian 
Law. 

409 Nehemiah dies. 

404 Malachi prophesies. 

403 Lysander takes Athens. Government of the Thirty- 
Tyrants. 

401 The younger Cyrus defeated by his brother Artax- 
erxes, and killed. 

Persecution and death of Socrates. 

385 Rome taken by the Gauls, under Brennus. 

356 Alexander the Great born at Pella, in Macedonia. 

348 End of the Sacred War. 

343 The War between the Romans and Samnites, which 
led to the Conquest of all Italy. 

336 Philip murdered by Pausanias. 

Alexander the Great destroys Thebes. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 457 

13. C. 

332 Alexander conquers Egypt, and takes Tyre. 
330 Darius Codomanus killed. End of the Persian Em- 
pire. 
328 Alexander passes into India, defeats Porus, founds 

several cities, and penetrates to the Ganges. 
The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Eu- 
phrates. 
324 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon, at the age of 

thirty- three. 
320 Ptolemy carries 100,000 Jews captives into Egypt. 
285 The Astronomical Era of Dionysius of Alexandria. 
283 The Library of Alexandria founded. 
280 Pyrrhus invades Italy. 
277 The translation of the Septuagint made by order of 

Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
266 Silver money is coined at Rome for the first time. 
253 Manasseh chosen high priest of the Jews. 
241 End of the first Punic War. 
235 The Temple of Janus shut the first time since the 

reign of Numa. 
225 Great victory of the Romans over the Gauls. 
219 Hannibal takes Saguntum. 
218 The second Punic War begins. 
206 Gold first coined at Rome. 
203 The Carthaginians recall Hannibal to Africa. 
196 The battle of Zama, and end of the second Punic 

War. 
170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes and plunders Jerusalem. 
167 End of the kingdom of Macedon. 
166 Judas Maccabeus drives the Syrians out of Judea. 
149 The third Punic War begins. 
146 Corinth taken by the Consul Mummius. 
135 The History of the Apocrypha ends. 

Antiochus besieges Jerusalem. 

103 Jugurtha starved to death at Rome. 

91 The War of the Allies against the Romans. 

82 Sylla perpetual Dictator. His horrible proscription. 

80 Julius Caesar makes his first campaign. 

79 Cicero's first Oration for Roscius. 

72 Herod the Great is born. 

63 Victories of Pompey. He takes Jerusalem, and re- 
stores Hyrcanus to the government of Judea. 

62 Catiline's conspiracy quelled at Rome by Cicero. 

61 Pompey enters Rome in triumph. 



458 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

B. C. 

59 The first Triumvirate, Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar. 
55 Caesar lands in Britain, and makes a short campaign. 
54 Caesar invades Britain a second time, and conquers 

part of it. 
49 Caesar passes the Rubicon, and marches to Rome. 
48 Battle of Pharsalia, in which Pompey is defeated. 

— The Alexandrian Library of 400,000 volumes burnt. 

45 The Calendar reformed by Julius Caesar, by intro- 
ducing the Solar Year instead of the Lunar. The 
first Julian Year began January 1, 45 A. C. 

44 Julius Caesar assassinated in the Senate-House, hav- 

killed 1,192,000 men. 
33 Mauritania reduced into a Roman Province. 

32 War declared by the Senate against Antony and Cle- 
opatra. 

31 Battle of Aciium, and end of the Roman common- 
wealth. 

— Octavius, emperor of Rome. 

19 Temple of Jerusalem rebuilt by Herod. 
10 The temple of Janus shut by Augustus for a short 
time. 

8 Augustus corrects an error of the Roman Calandar. 
5 Augustus ordains a Census of all the people in the 

Roman empire. 
4 JESUS CHRIST is born four years before the com- 
mencement of the vulgar era. 

A. D. 

9 The Roman Legions under Varus, destroyed in Ger- 
many. 

14 Tiberius emperor of Rome. 

17 Twelve cities of Asia destroyed by an earthquake. 

26 John the Baptist preaches in Judea the coming of 

the Messiah. 
29 Jesus baptized in Jordan bv John. 

33 JESUS CHRIST crucified. 

— The conversion of St. Paul. 
37 Caligula emperor of Rome. 

39 St. Matthew writes his Gospel. 

40 The name of Christians first given to the Disciples 
of Christ at Antioch. 

41 Claudius, emperor of Rome. 

■ — Herod persecutes the Christians, and imprisons Peter. 

42 Sergius Paulus, pro-consul, converted by St. Paul. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 459 

A. D. 

44 St. Mark writes his Gospel. 

— Herod is smitten by an angel, and dies. 
50 London is founded by the Romans. 

— St. Paul preaches in the Areopagus at Athens. 
55 St. Luke writes his Gospel. 

64 The first persecution of the Christians raised by Nero. 

— Rome set on fire by Nero. 

67 Massacre of the Jews by Florus, at Caesarea Ptole- 
mais, and Alexandria. 

— St. Peter and St. Paul put to death. 

— Josephus, the Jewish Historian, Governor of Galilee. 
70 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus. 

78 A great pestilence at Rome, 10,000 dying in one day. 

79 Titus, emperor of Rome. 

— Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption 
of Vesuvius. 

93 The Evangelist John banished to Patmos. 
95 Dreadful persecution of the Christians at Rome, and 
in the provinces. 

— St. John writes his Apocalypse, and his Gospel. 
98 Trajan forbids the Christian assemblies. 

108 St. Ignatius devoured by wild beasts at Rome. 

115 The Jews in Cyreno murder 200,000 Greeks and 
Romans. 

118 Persecution of the Christians renewed by Adrian, but 
afterwards suspended. 

120 Adrian's wall built across Britain. 

135 The Romans destroy 580,000 Jews in Judea. 

137 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem by the name of MUa. Cap- 
itolina. 

154 Justin Martyr publishes his apology for the Chris- 
tians. 

168 A plague over the known world. 

177 Persecution of the Christians at Lyons. 

189 The Saracens defeat the Romans. This people first 
mentioned in history. 

191 A great part of Rome destroyed by fire. 

195 Byzantium, besieged, surrenders to Severus. 

202 The fifth persecution against the Christians, princi- 
pally in Egypt. 

317 Marcinus, emperor of Rome. 

222 The Roman Empire begins to decline. 

225 Mathematicians allowed to teach publicly at Rome. 

236 The sixth persecution of the Christians. 



460 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

248 The secular games celebrated at Rome. 

250 The seventh persecution of the Christians under De- 

cius. 
257 The eighth persecution of the Christians. 

259 The Persians ravage Syria. 

260 The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. 
267 The Heruli invade and ravage Greece. 
274 Silk first brought from India. 

276 Wines first made in Britain. r- 

295 Alexandria, in Egypt, taken by Diocletian. 

302 The tenth persecution of the Christians. 

306 Constantine the Great, emperor of Rome. He stops 
the persecution of the Christians. 

315 Crucifixion abolished. 

321 Observation of Sunday enjoined. 

325 The first general council at Nice, where the doctrines 
of Arius are condemned. 

330 Constantine removes the seat of empire to Constan- 
tinople. 

337 Death of Constantine. The Empire divided among 
his three sons. 

Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius, Emper- 
ors of Rome. 

341 The Gospel propagated in Ethiopia by Foumentius 

361 Julian, Emperor of Rome. He abjures Christianity 
is elected Pontifex Maximus, and attempts fruitless!) 
to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. 

367 Gratian, Emperor of the West. 

378 The Goths advance to the gates of Constantinople. 

379 Theodosius, the Great, Emperor of the East. 
381 Second general council held at Constantinople. 
383 The Huns overrun Mesopotamia; are defeated bj 

the Goths. - 

410 Rome sacked and burnt by Alaric. Death of Alaric 
426 The Romans withdraw finally from Britain. 

431 The third general council held at Ephesus. 

432 Gospel preached in Ireland. 
439 Generic the Vandal, invades and plunders Italy. 
Carthage taken by the Vandals. Kingdom of th 

Vandals in Africa. 
445 The Britons in vain solicit the Romans to assist ther 

against the Picts and Scots. 
451 The Saxons arrive in Britain, under Hengist an 

Horsa. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 461 

A. D. 

457 Fourth general council at Chalcedon. 

452 Foundation of the city of Venice. 

472 Great eruption of Mount Vesuvius, seen from Con- 
stantinople. 

481 The kingdom of France begins. 

490 Ireland, called the Isle of Saints, famous for its 
schools. 

493 Odoacer put to death by Theodoric. 

497 Clovis and the Franks converted to Christianity. 

508 Theodoric, the Great, defeats Clovis in the battle of 
Aries, and then makes peace with him. 

510 Clovis makes Paris the capital of the kingdom of the 
Franks. 

511 Death of Clovis. Division of his kingdom among 
his four sons. 

516 The computation of time by the Christian era intro- 
duced by Dionysius, the Monk. 

519 Justin restores the Orthodox Bishops, and condemns 
the Eutychians. 

529 The books of the Civil Law published by Justinian. 

532 Great Insurrection at Constantinople, quelled with 
prodigious slaughter. 

543 An earthquake all over the world. 

551 The manufacture of Silk introduced into Europe. 

553 Fifth general council at Constantinople. 

571 Birth of Mahomet, the false prophet. 

580 The Latin tongue ceases to be spoken in Italy about 
this time. 

581 The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 

609 The Jews of Antioch massacre the Christians. 
616 Jerusalem taken by the Persians. 
622 Flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina. 
632 Death of Mahomet. 

636 Jerusalem taken by Omar and the Saracens, who keep 
possession of it 463 years. 

640 The Library of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, is burnt by the Saracens. 

641 Constantirie, Emperor of the East for a few months, 
poisoned by his step-mother. 

643 The temple of Jerusalem converted into a Mahome- 
tan mosque. 

653 The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus. 

658 The Saracens obtain peace of the Emperor Constans, 
and agree to pay a yearly tribute. 



462 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

660 Organs first used in churches. 

680 The sixth general council of Constantinople. 

685 The Britons, totally subdued by the Saxons, retreat 
into Wales and Cornwall. 

713 Spain conquered by the Saracens under Muce, the 
general of the Caliph Walid. 

737 Death of Pelagius, who preserved the Christian mon- 
archy in Asturia. 

748 The computing of years from the birth of Christ be- 
gan to be used in history. 

755 Temporal dominion of the Pope. 

762 Almanzar builds Bagdad, and makes it the seat of the 
Empire of the Caliphs. 

767 The Turks ravage Asia Minor. 

772 Charlemagne, sole monarch of France. 

779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre and Sardinia. 

781 Irene re-establishes the worship of Images. 

787 The Danes first land in England, 

The seventh general council, or second of Nice. 

788 Irene puts to death her son, Constantine, and is pro- 
claimed sole Empress. 

800 Charlemagne crowned Emperor at Rome. 

816 The Eastern Empire ravaged by earthquakes, famine, 

conflagrations, &c. 
827 Egbert unites the kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy. 

Beginning of the kingdom of England. 

845 The Normans plunder Hamburgh, and penetrate into 

Germany. 
848 The Venetian fleet destroyed by the Saracens. 
867 The Danes ravage England. 

886 The University of Oxford founded by Alfred. 

887 The Normans besiege Paris. 

890 Alfred, the Great, composes his code of laws, and 
divides England into counties, hundreds, and tithings. 

891 The first land-tax in England. 

915 The University of Cambridge founded by Edward, 

the Elder. 
941 Arithmetic brought into Europe. 
967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens by Nicephorus. 
991 The Arabic numeral ciphers first introduced into Eu- 
rope. 
1000 Paper made of cotton rags, in use. 
1013 The Danes, under Sueno, get possession of England. 
1025 Musical characters invented by Guido Aretino. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 463 

A. D. 

1040 Macbeth usurps the throne of Scotland by the mur- 
der of Duncan. 

1055 The Turks take Bagdad, and overrun the Empire of 
the Caliphs. 

1065 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens. 

1066 William (the Conqueror,) king of England. 
1070 The Feudal Law introduced into England. 

1079 Doomsday-book begun by William, the Conqueror. 

1080 Tower of London built. 

1087 William II. (Rufus) king of England. 
1095 The first Crusade to the Holy Land. Peter, the 
Hermit. 

1098 The Crusaders take Antioch. 

1099 Jerusalem taken by Godfrey of Boulogne. The 
Knights of St. John instituted. 

1100 Henry I. (Beauclerc) king of England. 

1110 Writing on paper made of cotton rags, common about 
this time. 

1135 Stephen, king of England. 

1141 Stephen, king of England, taken prisoner in the bat- 
tle of Lincoln by the troops of Matilda. 

1143 He recovers his kingdom. 

1147 The second Crusade preached by St. Bernard. 

1150 The study of the civil law revived at Bologna. 

1151 The Canon Law is collected by Gratian, a monk of 
Bologna. 

1156 Moscow in Russia founded. 

1157 The Bank of Venice instituted. 

1163 London Bridge built the first time of stone. 

1170 Paper made of linen rags. 

1172 Conquest of Ireland, by Henry II. 

1187 The city of Jerusalem taken by Saladin. 

1188 Third Crusade. 
1190 Teutonic Order. 

1196 Fourth Crusade sets out from Venice. 

1200 Fifth Crusade. 

1204 Latin Empire at Constantinople. 

1208 London incorporated, obtains a charter for electing a 

Mayor and Magistrates. 
1215 Magna Charta signed by king John, 
1217 Sixth Crusade. 
1233 Houses in London, and other cities of England, 

France and Germany, still thatched with straw. 
1248 Seventh Crusade. 



464 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1258 Bagdad taken by the Tartars. End of the Empire 

of the Saracens. 
1261 Fall of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. 
1270 Eighth and last Crusade. 
1270 Death of St. Louis. 

1282 The Sicilian Vespers, when 8,000 French were mas- 
sacred. 

1283 The conquest of Wales, by Edward I. 

1290 University of Lisbon founded. 

1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. 

1293 From this year there is a regular succession of Eng- 
lish Parliaments. 

1294 Parliaments established in Paris. 

1299 Interregnum in Scotland for eight years. Sir Wm. 

Wallace nobly supports the liberty of his country, 

defeats the English at Stirling, and drives thern out 

of the kingdom. 
1302 The Mariner's Compass said to be discovered at 

Naples. 
1304 Wallace betrayed, delivered up, and put to death by 

Edward I. 

1307 The establishment of the Swiss Republics. 

Coal first used in England. 

1308 The seat of the Popes transferred to Avignon for sev- 
enty years. * 

1314 The Scots under Robert Bruce defeat the English 
under Edward II., at Bannockburn. 

1319 The University of Dublin founded. 

1320 Gold first coined in Christendom. 

1340 Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a Monk of Cologne. 
■ Oil Painting invented by John Van Eyke. 

Copper Money first used in Scotland and Ireland. 

1346 Battle of Cressy, won by Edward III. and the Black 

Prince, over the French. 
1350 The Order of the Garter instituted bf Edward III. 
1357 Coals first brought to London. 
1352 The Turks first enter Europe. 
1356 The battle of Poictiers, in which John II. king of 

France, is taken prisoner, and afterwards brought to 

London. 
1362 Law pleadings in England changed from French to 

English. 
1365 Universities of Vienna and Geneva founded. 
1381 Peace between Venice and Genoa. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 465 

A. D. 

1381 Bills of exchange first used in England. 
1383 Cannon first used by the English in the defense of 
Calais. 

1391 Cards invented in France, for the king's amusement. 

1392 The Cape of Good Hope discovered by the Portu- 
guese. 

1394 The Jews banished from France by Charles VI. 

1405 The Canary Islands discovered. 

1412 Algebra brought from Arabia into Europe. 

-— The University of St. Andrews, in Scotland, founded. 

1415 John Huss condemned by the Council of Constance 
for heresy, and burnt. 

1420 The Island of Madeira discovered by the Portuguese. 

1425 The court of sessions in Scotland, instituted by 
James I. 

1428 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, compels the Eng- 
lish to raise the siege of that town. 

1436 Paris recovered by the French from the English. 

1439 Reunion of the Greek and Latin churches. 

1440 Invention of the art of printing, by John Guttenberg, 
at Strasburg. 

1446 Great inundation of the sea in Holland. 

1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks. 

End of the English government in France. 

1459 The art of engraving on copper invented. 

1460 Battle of Wakefield, in which the Duke of York is 
killed. 

1474 The Cape de Verd Islands discovered by the Portu- 
guese. 
1479 Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms of Arra- 

gon and Castile. 
1489 Maps and sea charts first brought to England. 
1492 America discovered by Christopher Columbus. 
1497 The Portuguese, under Vasco de Gama, double the 

Cape of Good Hope, and sail to the East Indies. 
1497 Sebastian Cabot lands in North America. 
1500 Brazil discovered by the Portuguese. 
1507 Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese. 
1514 Cannon bullets of stone still in use. 
1517 The Reformation in Germany begun by Luther. 

1521 Cortez completes the conquest of Mexico. 

1522 The first voyage round the world performed by a ship 
of Magellan's squadron. 

1534 The Reformation in England. 

20 



466 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1539 The first English edition of the Bible authorized ; the 
present translation finished 1611. 

— About this time cannon began to be used in ships. 

1539 Six hundred and forty-five religiou&houses suppressed 
in England and Wales. 

1543 Pins first used in England, before which time the la- 
dies used skewers. 

1545 The council of Trent, the last of the General Coun- 
cils, opens and continues, with various interruptions, 
for eighteen years. 

1552 The book of common prayer established in England 
by act of Parliament. 

1553 Lady Jane Grey beheaded. 

1560 Beginning of the civil wars in France. 

The Reformation completed in Scotland by Jno. Knox. 

1561 Mary queen of Scots arrives in Scotland from France. 
1563 Knives first used in England. 

1568 Mary queen of Scots flees to England for protection. 

1569 The earl of Murray, regent of Scotland, assassinated 
by Hamilton. 

1572 The massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24. 
1574 Socinus propagates his opinions. 

Don Sebastian, king of Portugal, invades Africa. 

1576 The league in France formed against the Protestants. 

1579 Commencement of the republic of Holland, by the 
union of Utrecht. 

1580 The world circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake. 
1582 The New Style introduced into Italy by Pope Greg- 
ory XIII., the 5th of October being counted the 15th. 

1584 Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh. 

1588 Manufacture of paper introduced into England. 

1589 Coaches first introduced into England. 

1591 University of Dublin erected. 

1592 Presbyterian church government established in Scot- 
land. 

1594 The Bank of England incorporated. 

1597 Watches first brought into England from Germany. 

1600 The English East India Company established. 

1602 Decimal Arithmetic invented at Bruges. 

1605 The Gunpowder Plot discovered. 

1607 Settlement of Jamestown, Virginia. 

1608 Galileo discovers the satellites of Jupiter. 

Arminius propagates his opinions. 

- Quebec founded. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 467 

A. D. 

1610 Hudson's Bay discovered. 
1614 Logarithms invented by Napier. 
— < New-York settled. 

1619 Discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. 
Harvey. 

1620 The broad silk manufacture from raw silk, introduced 
into England. 

Copper money first introduced into England. 

Settlement of Plymouth, Massachusetts. 

1623 New-Hampshire settled. 

1624 New-Jersey settled. 

1625 The Island of Barbadoes the first English settlement 
in the West Indies. 

1627 Delaware settled. 

1633 Connecticut settled. 

1634 Maryland settled. 
1636 Rhode-Island settled. 

1639 The first printing-press established in the American 
colonies. 

1642 Beginning of the civil war in England. 

1643 Archbishop Laud condemned by the commons, and 
beheaded. 

1649 Commonwealth of England begins. 

1650 North and South Carolina settled. 

1651 The Quakers first appear in England. 

1652 The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope estab- 
lished. 

The first war between the English and Dutch. 

1654 End of the commonwealth of England. 

The English, under admiral Penn, take possession of 

Jamaica. 

1660 Charles II., king of Great Britain. 

1662 The Royal Society instituted in England. 

1663 Charter of Carolina, and a colony settled soon after. 

The French Academy of Inscriptions instituted. 

1665 Great plague in London. 

1666 Tea first used in England. 
Great fire in London. 

The Academy of Sciences instituted in France. 

1678 The habeas corpus act passed in England. 
1681 Pennsylvania settled. 

1685 Duke of Monmouth beheaded. 

1686 The Newtonian philosophy first published in Eng- 
land. 



468 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1688 Revolution in Britain. King James abdicates the 
throne, December 23. 

1689 Episcopacy abolished in Scotland by king William. 
1700 Yale College (Conn.) founded. 

1702 The English and Dutch destroy the French fleet at 
Vigo. 

The French send colonies to the Mississippi. 

1703 Gibraltar taken by Admiral Rooke, July 24. 

1704 Peter the Great founds St. Petersburg. 

First newspaper published in America at Boston. 

1706 Union between England and Scotland. 

1726 Great earthquake at Palermo, August 21. 

1727 Inoculation first tried on criminals with success. 

1732 Washington born, Feb. 22. 

1733 Georgia settled. 

1744 Commodore Anson completes his voyage round the 
world. 

1745 Louisburg and Cape Breton taken by the British 
troops, June 6. 

The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, July. 

1750 Academy of Sciences founded at Stockholm. 

1752 New Style introduced into Britain, September 3, 
reckoned 14. 

1754 Great eruption at iEtna. 

Great earthquake at Constantinople and Cairo, Sep- 
tember 2. 

1755 Lisbon destroyed bv an earthquake, Nov. 1. 

1755 Defeat of Braddock. 

1756 War declared between Great Britain and France, 
May 18. 

1759 General Wolfe takes Quebec, in Canada, Sept. 17. 

1760 Montreal and Canada taken by the British. 

1762 American Philosophical Society established at Phila- 
delphia. 
1765 Stamp Act passed. 

1775 Battle of Lexington, April 19. 

Battle of Bunker's Hill in North America, June 17. 

1776 The Americans declare their independence, July 4. 
Battle of Long-Island, August 27. 

New-York taken, in September. 

Battle of Trenton, Dec. 25. 

1777 Battle of Brandy wine, Sept, 11. 

Philadelphia taken, Sept. 26. 

■ Surrender of the British army under Burgoyne, at 

Saratoga, in the state of New- York, Oct. 17. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 469 

A. D. 

1780 Treachery of Arnold, Sept. 22. 

1781 Battle of Covvpens, January. 

Battle of Guilford, March 15. 

Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sept. 8. 

Surrender of the British army under Cornwallis, to 

the Americans and French at Yorktown in Virginia, 
Oct. 19. 

1782 Articles of peace, between Great Britain and the Uni- 
ted States, signed at Paris, Nov. 30. 

First English Bible printed in America at Philadel- 
phia. 

1788 Constitution of the United States adopted. 

1789 George Washington, first President of the United 
States, April. 

1791 Vermont became a state. 

First Sunday School in the United States commenced 

at Philadelphia. 

Methodist Missionary Society instituted in England. 

1792 Kentucky became a state. 

Baptist Missionary Society formed in England. 

1793 Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette beheaded. 

1795 The Cape of Good Hope taken by the British, Sep- 
tember 16. 

1797 John Adams, President of the United States, March 4. 

1798 Ireland in open rebellion, May, June, &c. 

Admiral Nelson destroys the French fleet in the bat- 
tle of the Nile, August 1. 

1799 George Washington dies, Dec. 14. 

London Religious Tract Society. 

1800 Union of Britain and Ireland. 

1801 First meeting of the Imperial Parliament of Britain 
and Ireland, January. 

Thomas Jefferson, President of the U. States, Mar. 4. 

1804 British and Foreign Bible Society. 

1805 Lord Nelson defeats the combined fleets of France 
and Spain off Cape Trafalgar, takes or destroys 19 
ships of the line, and is killed in the battle, Oct. 21. 

War between England and Spain. 

1806 The British Parliament vote the abolition of the slave 
trade, June 10. 

1808 Abolition of the slave trade in the United States of 
America, January 1. 

1810 American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis- 
sions formed; incorporated in 1812. 



470 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1810 Population of the United States, 7,239,903. 

1811 Two hundred buildings and large quantities of goods 
burnt in Newburyport, Mass. 

An unusually large comet appeared, Sept. 1. 

— Richmond theatre burnt, Dec. 26. 

1812 War against Great Britain declared by the United 
States, June 18. 

General Hull and his army taken prisoners in Can- 
ada, August 16. 

The French army enter Moscow, Sept. 14. 

British frigate Guerriere captured, August 29. 

do. do. Macedonian captured, Oct. 26. 

do. do. Java captured, Dec. 29. 

1813 Commodore Perry captures the British squadron, on 
lake Erie, Sept. 10. 

1814 Napoleon Buonaparte dethroned, April 4, and ban- 
ished to the island of Elba, for which he sails, 
April 28. 

City of Washington taken by the British, August 24. 

British squadron on lake Champlain captured by Com- 
modore M'Donough, Sept. 11. 

Pensacola taken I y General Jackson, Nov. 7. 

Treaty of peace between the United States and Great 

Britain, signed at Ghent, Dec. 24. 

The British repulsed at New-Orleans, Dec. 28. 

1815 The British completely defeated, and General Pack- 
enham slain, at New Orleans, Jan. 8. 

United States' frigate President taken by a British 

squadron, January 15. 

Peace between Great Britain and the United States 

ratified, Feb. 24. 

American Education Society instituted at Boston. 

Battle of Waterloo. 

1816 Deaf and Dumb, Society for the instruction of, insti- 
tuted at Hartford, Connecticut, June 24. 

American Bible Society formed. 

Indiana admitted into the Union as a state. 

1817 United States' Bank opened for business at Philadel- 
phia, January 1. 

American Colonization Society for free blacks organ- 
ized, January 1. 

James Monroe, President of the U. States, March 4. 

Mississippi admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 11. 

1818 Illinois admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 4, 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 47 L 

A. D. 

1818 Commercial treaties concluded between the United 
States on the one part, and Great Britain and Sweden 
on the other. 

1819 A treaty for the cession of Florida to the United States 
signed at Washington, Feb. 23. 

■ First steam-ship sails for Europe, May. 

Alabama admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 

1820 George III., king of England, dies, Jan. 29. 

George IV. succeeds to the throne of Great Britain 

and Ireland. 

Maine admitted into the Union as a state. 

The American Colonization Society sent out their 

first colonists to Liberia. 

Population of the United States, 9,625,734. 

1821 Missouri admitted into the Union as a state. 

Napoleon Buonaparte dies at St. Helena, May &, 

aged 52. 

— Elias Boudinot, president of the American Bible So- 

ciety, dies. 

1822 Columbia College established. 
Massacre of Greeks at Scio. 

1824 The Marquis de la Fayette visited the United States. 

American Sunday School Union instituted at Phila- 
delphia. 

1825 John Quincy Adams, President of the United States, 
March 4. 

American Tract Society instituted at New- York. 

1826 The Ex- Presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jef- 
ferson, died, July 4. 

1829 Andrew Jackson, President of the U. States, March 4. 

1830 An act passed, by Congress, to remove the Indians 
residing in any of the states or territories, to the west 
of the Mississippi. 

Fifth census of the United States taken. Number 

of the population, 12,850,240. 

George IV., king of England, dies, June 26. 

William IV. succeeds him. 

1836 Formation of the Republic of Texas. 

1837 Martin Van Buren inaugurated, March 4. 

1841 William Henry Harrison inaugurated, March 4, and 
dies, April 4th. Vice-President, John Tyler, inaug- 
urated in his place. 

1845 James K. Polk inaugurated. 

General Jackson dies, June 8. 



QUESTIONS. 



The number prefixed to the following Questions, correspond to the 
paragraphs in the body of the work. 



SOURCES AND DIVISION OF HISTORY. 

1. What is history? What is the first source of history ? the se- 
cond? the third? the fourth? the fifth? Where is the most celebrated 
of marbles? Which is the most important, and what does it contain? 

6. How is history divided ? What is ancient history ? What is 
modern history ? What do some historians adopt, as the division be- 
tween Ancient and Modern history ? 

7. What is ancient history distinguished for? and for what is mod- 
ern history distinguished ? What do the Middle Ages comprise ? 

8. What are the other divisions of history ? What is sacred history ? 
Profane history, and who is the earliest profane historian ? What is 
ecclesiastical, and what is civil history ? 

CREATION. 

1. From what source are we enabled to derive the authentic history 
of the Creation? How old is the world, and how many days were em- 
ployed in producing it? From what did God form the body of man? 
and what did he do on the seventh day ? 

2. From what was the first woman formed ? What were the names 
of the first of the human family ? and where were they placed ? What 
were they permitted to use ? Why was this restriction laid upon them ? 

3. Where is the supposed situation of the garden of Eden ? 

4. What is said of the innocence of our first parents? How was the 
woman deceived ? and what was the effect of their disobedience ? 

5. What sentence was pronounced on the serpent? and what pro- 
mise was made to man ? What then became of Adam and Eve ? 

6. When was Cain born ? When was Abel born ? and what is re- 
lated of the two brothers ? 

7. What is said of Enoch ? and the descendants of Cain ? 

8. What did the Deity determine to do? Who was exempted from 
the sentence? 

9. Describe the ark ? When completed, what did Noah do ? How 
long did the waters continue to fall ? 

10. Where did the ark rest ? What is said of the crow and the 
dove ? 



474 QUESTIONS. 

11. What did Noah now do ? What promise did God make ? In 
what did Noah engage ? What happened to him ? What sentence did 
he pronounce on Ham ? 

12. What is said of the descendants of Noah ? What did they un- 
dertake ? What did God do? What ensued? Where did the descend- 
ants of the sons of Noah settle ? 

ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

1. What is said of Assyria? Who founded Babylon? What is sup- 
posed concerning Assyria and Babylon? 

2. What is said of Nip us? What was his design ? Describe Nine- 
veh ? 

3. What is said of Semiramis ? Describe Babylon ? 

4. How long did Semiramis reign ? What is said of Sardanapalus ? 
and what was his end ? 

5. What empires were now founded ? What was done in the reign 
of Shalmaneser? Who was the next sovereign, and what did he do? 
What did Esarhaddon do ? 

6. What happened during the reign of Nabopolassar ? What did 
Nebuchadnezzar do ? How did God punish him ? 

7. What was done during the reign of Belshazzar? What was his 
end ? 

8. What is said of the government and laws of Assyria and Baby- 
lon ? What singular custom prevailed ? 

9. What is said of the learning of the Babylonians and Chaldeans? 
To what did they build temples? What is said concerning the origin 
of idol worship ? To what did the Babylonians apply themselves? 

PERSIA. 

1. What is said of Persia ? What did it become in the reign of 
Cyrus ? 

2. What is said of Cyrus ? What did he do ? What edict did he 
publish ? 

3. How do Herodotus and Xenophon differ in their accounts of Cy- 
rus ? 

4. Who succeeded Cyrus? How did he make himself master of 
Pelusium ? On the death of Cambyses, who usurped the throne? 

5. What is said of Xerxes ? Who was the last of the Persian mon- 
archs, and what was his end ? 

6. What is said of the government of Persia? and of those who 
approached the sovereign? Describe the palace at Persepolis ? 

7. To what did they pay peculiar regard ? What custom prevailed ? 

8. What is said of the mode of punishment? Describe one severe ' 
form ? 

9. What is said of their religion ? What did they adore ? 

PHOENICIANS. 

1. What is said of the Phoenicians ? Of what were they the inven- 
tors ? 

2. What is said of Hiram ? Where did they send colonies ? What 
is said of Tyre ? 



QUESTIONS. 475 

EGYPT. 
Section I. 

1. What is said of Egypt ? How was it considered by the ancients ? 

2. Who was the founder of the Egyptian monarchy ? By whom was 
Egypt next governed ? 

3. What is said of the ancient Egyptians ? of Sesostris ? 

4. Who was the next sovereign, and what is said of him ? 

5. Who invaded Egypt ? By whom was it wrested from the Persi- 
ans ? How long did the dynasty of the Ptolemies continue ? 

6. What is said of Ptolemy Lagus? What did he establish ? 

7. By whom was Ptolemy Lagus succeeded? What is said of him? 
S. What is said of Ptolemy Evergetes ? By whom was he succeed- 
ed ? What did he attempt ? 

9. What did he publish ? How did he attempt to destroy the Jews? 

10. Who was the last king of Egypt ? What is said of Cleopatra ? 
What did Egypt become ? 

Section II. 

1. What is said of the manners and customs of the ancient Egyp- 
tians ? Of the government ? Of the King ? What did the laws pro- 
scribe ? 

2. On what were the laws based ? What was the punishment of 
murder ? Of perjury ? What was every man obliged to do ? What 
was allowed ? What custom prevailed ? 

_ S. To what was great respect paid ? What virtue was held in the 
highest esteem ? 

4. Besides Osiris and Isis, what did the Egyptians worship ? What 
does Deodorus relate ? What doctrine did they hold ? 

5. When a member of a family died, what did the relations do ? Dis- 
cribe the ceremony of embalming? 

6. What is said of the power of the laws? If a man had lived vici 
ous, or died in debt, what was done ? 

Section III. 

1. What is said of the Pyramids? What was the length of each 
side of the base of the Pyramid near Memphis ? For what were they 
designed ? 

2. What was the Labyrinth? For what designed % What is said 
of the Obelisks ? With what were many of them covered ? 

3. What was the noblest work? What was its circumference? 
What was in the midst of the lake ? For what was it designed 1 

4. What is said of the ruins of cities, &c. ? Describe Thebes? Des- 
cribe one of the palaces of this city ? What is said of Memphis ? 

GREECE. 
Section I. 

1. What is said of Greece? What did it formerly comprise ? How 
were they united ? 

2. What was its ancient name ? From whom were the inhabitants 
descended? What was their condition, when Cecrops landed in 
Greece ? 

3. How is the history of Greece divided ? How do these periods 
extend ? What is said of the first period ? 



476 QUESTIONS. 

4. From what does the Grecian history derive authenticity ? Of 
what does this chronicle fix the date ? 

5. By whom was Sicyon founded? Argos? Athens? Thebesi 
What is said of Cadmus ? 

6. In the time of Cranaus, what happened ? What institutions dis- 
tinguished this period ? 

Section II. 

1. What do the fabulous ages comprise ? What was the first great 
enterprise? Who commanded it ? and who accompanied him ? 

2. From where did they sail ? For what was this famous voyage 
undertaken ? 

3. For what is the heroic age distinguished ? What is said of Hel- 
en ? How did her father bind all her suitors ? 

4. To whom did Helen give her hand ? What is said of Paris ? 

5. What did this treachery produce ? Who was commander-in-chiei 
of the Grecian forces ? Mention the other princes ? 

6. By whom were the Trojans commanded? What is said of tht 
city ? Of Priam ? About eighty years after this, what happened 1 
What is said of Hercules ? 

Section III. 

1. What was Sparta? What is said of the government after the 
return of the Heraclidae ? 

2. What is said of Lycurgus ? With what was he invested ? Whal 
did he institute ? What is said of the kings ? 

3. How did he divide the territory ? What is said of commerce 
Of gold and silver ? Of iron money ? Of dress ? Of public tables 
What was said by the oldest man present ? 

4. What is said of the institutions of Lycurgus? Of infants'? Wha 
were the young taught to pay ? What is said of letters ? How were 
they accustomed to speak ? 

5. What is said of the youth? Of the manners of the women, 
What is said of mothers ? 

6. How long did the institutions of Lycurgus continue ? In thf 
process of time, what took place? What is said of Sparta from this 
period ? 

Section IV. 

1. For what was Athens distinguished? After the death of Codrus 
how was the state governed? What is said of the office? 

2. What is said of Draco? How were his laws distinguished' 
What reply did he make when asked, why he was so severe?" 

3. What is said of Solon? What did he endeavor to accomplish' 
Of his laws, what did he say ? 

4. What is said of Solon's system? Of the fourth class? Wha 
did he institute ? What is said of commerce, &c. ? 

5. What was the striking contrast between the Athenians and Lace 
dsemonians? 

6. What is said of Pisistratus? How did he govern ? What is saic 
of Hipparchus and Hippius ? 

Section V. 

1. What is said of ^s period ? What was the immediate cause 
which led to the inv of Greece? 



QUESTIONS. 477 

2. What is said of Darius ? How did Athens and Sparta treat the 
heralds ? 

3. What is said of the first Persian fleet? What was the number 
of the second fleet ? By whom was this host met? What was the 
loss of the Persians ? Of the Athenian army ? What is said of an 
Athenian soldier? 

4. What is related of Miltiades, the illustrious general ? 

6. What is said of Xerxes? What was the number of his army ? 
Of his fleet? 

7. Having arrived at Mount Athos, what did he cause? What did 
he order? How long was the army in passing the straits? 

8. What is now related of Xerxes? 

9. What is said of the Persian army? On this spot, who opposed its 
progress ? What reply did he make ? How long were the Persians 
stopped ? 

10. What did Leonidas now do? Of the 300, how many escaped? 
What inscription was afterwards placed upon the monument ? 

11. Where did Xerxes now march? What is said of the Atheni- 
ans ? Who commanded their fleet? What engagement took place ? 
What is said of Xerxes ? How did he cross the Hellespont? 

12. What did the Persian monarch leave ? By whom was this 
army met ? and what was the issue of the battle? On the same day, 
what took place ? What was the end of Xerxes? 

13. At this period what is said of the Greeks ? What did they un- 
dertake ? What did they effect ? 

14. What is said of Pausanias? Where did he take refuge? What 
is related of Themistocles ? What was his end ? 

15. What is said of Aristides and Cimon? After the banishment 
of Cimon, who gained the ascendancy at Athens? 

16. Was Cimon again recalled ? What is said of the Persian war? 
What were the conditions of peace? 

17. What is said of Pericles? In all his public acts, what did he 
display ? How did he die? What did he say before his death? 

Section VI. 

1. What was commenced previous to the death of Pericles? What 
was the origin of this war ? 

2. What state took the lead against Athens? During the first year 
of the war, what took place? During the second ? 

3. After the death of Pericles, who grew into power ? What was 
is end? After this event, what took place ? 

4. What expedition was next undertaken? What is said of A 1- 
cibiades ? 

5. What is said of Lysander ? Of the Athenians? What were the 
terms of peace ? How did the war end ? 

6. What did Lysander do? In eight months, how many citizens- 
perished ? What did Thrasybulus do? 

7. What event took place at this time ? How did the Sophists re- 
present him ? Why ? 

8. How did he make his defense ? What is said of him during his 
mprisonment? How did he die? What is said of the Athenians? 

9. What did Cyrus attempt ? What did the remainder of the army 
effect after this event ? 

10. By whom were the Grecian colonies assisted? What did the 
Persians effect by bribes ? What is said of Ageselaus ? What battles 
were fought ? What was agreed by the treaty of peace ? 



478 QUESTIONS. 

11. What state emerged from obscurity? What did the Spartans 
do ? What is said of Phelopedas? 

12. What ensued ? What battle did the Theban army gain? What 
was the loss on both sides? What is said of the Spartans? 

13. What is said of the Theban commander? What followed the 
battle of Mantinea ? 

Section VII. 

1. What is said now of Greece? Of Athens? Of Sparta? 

2. How long had the kingdom of Macedon existed? What is said 
of the inhabitants ? Of Philip ? At what age did he ascend the throne 
of Macedon ? 

3. What did he possess? What did he cherish? What gave rise 
to the sacred war ? 

4. What did Philip propose? After this event, what took place? 
How did he commence hostilities? What is said of iEschines and De- 
mosthenes? What is said of the battle of Cheronaea? 

5. What was the policy of the conqueror? Having convoked a 
council of the states, what did he lay before them? On the eve of this 
enterprise, what happened to Philip ? What did the news of this event 
cause among the Athenians? 

6. Who succeeded Philip? How did he treat the Thebans? Hav- 
ing assembled the deputies of the Grecian states, what proposals did 
he renew? 

7. What was the number of his army? Where did he proceed? 
By whom and where was he met? What was the issue of the battle, 
and the loss on both sides? In this battle, what is said of Alexander? 

8. What places did he next take ? Where was the next victory ob- 
tained? What was the number of the Persian army ? The number 
of the slain on both sides? Who fell into the hands of the conqueror? 
How were they treated ? What did Darius offer for their ransom? 

9. When the offer was laid before the council, what was said of 
Parmenio, and what was Alexander's reply? After the siege of Tyre, 
what act of cruelty did he exercise ? Having taken the city of Gaza, 
what did he do? 

10. Where did he next proceed? On his return, what city did he 
commence ? What reply did he make to the proposals of Darius? 

11. Where was he met by Darius? What ensued? What was the 
loss on both sides. What was the fate of Darius ? 

12. What did Alexander next project? When he arrived on the 
banks of the Ganges, what happened 1 Where did he die? What 
was his age, and the length of his reign ? 

13. Perceiving that his end was approaching, what did he do? What 
is said of Alexander ? In the early part of his career ? When intox- 
icated with success ? Whom did he cause to be assassinated ? Who did 
he strike dead? 

Section V1IL 

1. How was the empire divided? What arose? Name the four 
chief empires? 

2. From Alexander's death, what is said of the history of the Gre- 
cian states? When the news reached Athens, what did Demosthenes 
do ? What was his end ? 

3. Under the administration of Polysperchon, what was said 1 What 



QUESTIONS. 479 

is said of Phocion? What reply did he make to a friend ? Who was 
appointed governor of Athens? What is said of his administration? 

4. What was the last effort to revive the liberty of Greece ? To 
whom was the government committed ? What did he form? Who 
succeeded Aratus? What was he styled? 

5. What is said of the Macedonians? What was done by their 
army? When did the Romans again invade Greece? What is said 
of Philip ? What was his fate ? 

6. What is said of the Romans? Who completed the conquest of 
Greece? To what was it reduced? 

7. In reviewing the history, what do we find? What is said of the 
forms of government ? Of the people ? Of slaves ? 

,8. In pursuing the history of Athens, how is the mind struck ? Who 
were sentenced to death or banishment? What remarkable circum- 
stance strikes us ? What declined ? 

Section IX. 

Philosophy. — What is said of philosophy among the Greeks? 
Who was the founder of the Ionic sect? What is said of him ? Who 
was the founder of the Pythagorian sect? What did he teach ? Who 
was the founder of the Socratic sect? What did he teach and incul- 
cate? Who founded the Synic sect? What did he condemn ? Who 
founded the Academic sect? What did he teach ? Where did he give 
his lectures? Who founded the Peripatetic sect? Who founded the 
Skeptic sect? What did he inculcate? Who was the founder of the 
Stoic sect? What did they inculcate? What did they teach ? What 
is said of the Epicurians? What was a subject of special research ? 
What were the various opinions of the philosophers on this subject? 

The Seven Wise Men. — Who were the seven wise men of Greece? 

The Council of the Amphicttons. — By whom was it instituted? 
Of what did it consist ? Where did they meet ? What was the object 
of this assembly? 

Public Games — What were the four public games? What were 
the exercises? By w 7 hom were the Olympic games instituted? What 
was the prize of the victor? What is said of it? Plow often were 
they celebrated ? How often were the Phythean games celebrated ? 
In honor of whom? What was the reward of the victors? At what 
place were the Nemean celebrated? With what were the victors 
crowned ? Why were the Isthmian games so called? What is said of 
them? What was the reward of the victors? 

Literature. — What is said of the Greeks in literary taste? In 
what are they still unrivalled? What is said of poetry ? Of Homer? 
Of Anacreon, &c. ? What is said of Oratory ? The study of elo- 
quence? Of music? What did they ascribe to it? What is said of 
dancing ? 

Arts. — In what were the Greeks never greatly distinguished? In 
what did they surpass all others? What were the three orders of ar- 
chitecture? What is said of the Doric? How was the Ionic distin- 
guished? What did the Corinthian effect? What is said of sculpture? 
What have an imperishable fame? What is said of painting ? 

Private and Domestic Life. — What was the dress of the men? 
Of the women? What did the Athenians wear ? What was the num- 
ber of their meals, and when were they taken ? What was used ? 
How did they sat at their meals ? What is said of marriage ? What 
was allowed ? What is said of the Grecian women ? What was die- 



480 QUESTIONS. 

reputable ? What were children required to do ? What is said of 
funerals? What was thought the most awful imprecation? What 
were some of the peculiar institutions ? What is said of the Areopa- 
gus? Of what were they the guardians? What was deemed an un- 
pardonable act of levity ? What was the Ostracism ? By this institu- 
tion, what was after committed ? 

Origin of Tragedy. — To what does tragedy owe its origin? 
What is said of Thespis ? How did he carry his actors ? What im- 
provement did iEschylus make ? Of his tragedies, how many remain? 
Who disputed the palm with him ? What is said of Euripides ? 

ROME. 

Section I. 

1. What is said of the early history? What account do the poets 
give of iEneas? 

2. What is said of Rhea Sylvia ? To what was the mother con- 
demned? What is said of the twins? By whom were they found? 
What is related of Romulus and Remus? 

3. What did they resolve to do ? What arose ? What is related ? 
What did Romulus now do ? 

4. How did he divide the people? Of what did the senate consist? 
By what was the king attended ? To what did these regulations con- 
tribute? What were wanted? How was this deficiency supplied? 

5. What ensued? How long did Romulus reign? 

6. Who succeeded ? What did he do ? What was his age ? How 
long did he reign ? 

7. Who was the third king of Rome ? For what is his reign mem- 
orable? Relate the circumstances of this combat? 

8. Who was the fourth king of Rome? Whom did he conquer? 
What did he erect? When did he die ? 

9. Who next succeeded to the throne ? For what was his reign dis- 
tinguished ? What did he build ? How did he die ? 

10. Who succeeded to the throne ? What did he institute? 

11. What is related of his two daughters? How did Serving die? 
Who succeeded to the throne? What did Tullia do, in her eagerness 
to salute her husband as king ? 

12. What did Tarquin refuse ? What did he order ? What is re- 
lated of Sextus ? 

13. At midnight, what did he do? What did he threaten? How 
did Collatinus and Spurius find Lucretia? What reply did she make 
to them ? How did she die ? 

14. What did Brutus do? What did he obtain? How long had 
the regal government continued ? 

Section II. 

1. The regal power being abolished, what was established? What 
two magistrates were chosen ? Who were the two first consuls ? 

2. What is said of the republic? Who were found among the con- 
spirators? What was their fate? What is said of Brutus? 

3. What did Tarquin now resolve? By whom was he defeated? 
What had the Romans to lament? 

4. In the mean time what did Tarquin do? By what is this war 
signalized? What is related of Horatius and Mutius? 

3. What is said of Tarquin? What did the plebeians refuse ? 



QUESTIONS. 481 

6. What new magistrate was created ? What was his power? Who 
Was the first dictator? What was the fate of the sons of Tarquin? 

7. What dispute was again renewed? What did the plebeians re- 
solve to do ? 

8. At the news of this defection, what did the senate do ? What is 
related of Agrippa? For their future security what was done? What 
were these magistrates called? At the same time, what other two 
magistrates were appointed ? 

9. During the separation, what was neglected? What followed ? 
Against whom was the resentment of the people excited ? To what 
was he sentenced? Where did he retire? What is related of him? 

10. What was a source of discord between the plebeians and pa- 
tricians? What law was passed ? What was the nature of this law? 

11. Who at this time was created dictator? What is said of Cin- 
cinnatus ? 

12. What had the Romans never possessed? For what were the 
•commissioners sent to Greece? 

13. On their return, what was done? To what did this give rise ? 
What do these laws manifest? How many crimes were punishable 
with death? 

14 What is said of the decemvirs? What did they entreat ? What 
did they throw off? 

15. What is related of Appius ? What were the soldiers who form- 
ed the escort of Dentatus? How many did he kill and wound ? 

16, What other transaction is related of Appius while seated on his 
"tribunal? What sentence did he pronounce? 

n. In the mean time what did Virginiusdo? What did he ask? 
How did he address his daughter ? What did he then do ? What 
Was the fiite of Appius and Oppius? 

18. By a law of the state, what were the plebeians prohibited? 
What was done after a long contest ? At length, what was agreed on 
both sides? 

19. What two new magistrates were now created? What was 
their duly ? 

20 What wise expedient did the senate adopt? What were the 
■consequences of this measure ? 

2 1 . What was at length decreed ? Who was created dictator ? What 
did he cause ? How was he honored ? Of what was he accused ? 

22. What is said of the Gauls? What reply did Brennus make to 
the embassy sent by the Romans? What did one of the ambassadors 
do ? How did Brennus resent this conduct? 

23. On entering Rome, what did the Gauls do ? Having discover- 
ed a way to the Tarpetan rock, what did the Gauls do ? How was 
the garrison roused? 

24. To what did the Gauls agree? At this moment who appeared 
at the gates of the city ? What did he order ? What ensued ? 

25. After the defeat of the Gauls, what took place? What is rela= 
ted of Manlius? 

26. Against whom did the Romans next turn their arms? Where 
did they suffer a defeat? Who was created dictator? 

27. What war next followed? What orders were issued by Man- 
lius? What is related of Titus, his son ? 

28 To whom did the Tarentines apply for aid? Who was sent to 
oppose him? What was the issue of the battle ? What did Pyrrhus 
■exclaim ? 

29. What is related of Fabricius ? What did Pyrrhus say of him ? 
21 



482 QUESTION $. 

Section HI. 

1. What is aaid of Carthage ? Of the government? What wem 
its defects ? 

2. In what was the power placed? What were the magistrates- 
called? What is said of religian? Of Carthage, at the time of the 
Punic wars? 

3. What did the Carthaginians bring from Egypt? From Tyre? 
How are they represented ? 

8. Did they ever excel as a literary people ? What is said of Han' 
nibal? Of Mago? What is still extant? What did Carthage pro- 
duce ? 

6. What is said of Sicily ? What did it contain? What is said of 
Gelon ? What was the fate of Dionysius the younger ? 

6. What occasioned the fiist Punic war? What was the object of 
both powers? 

7. What was an obstacle to the ambition ©f Rome ? How did the 
Romans surmount the difficulty? Who was appointed to command 
the fleet ? What was the issue of the engagement? 

8. What is said of the Syracusans? What was the result of the 
second naval engagement? What is related ef Regulus? 

9. Whom did the Carthaginians send to Rome to negotiate a peace? 
What did Regulus do ? How was he put to death ? 

10. On what conditions was peace granted to the Carthaginians? 
After the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul, what did the Romans do? 

11. What led to the second Punic war? To whom did the Cartha- 
ginians intrust the command of their army ? What is said of him 
whilst young? What bold design did he form ? 

12. Leaving Hanno in Spain, what did Hannibal do? How many 
days did he occupy in crossing the Alps? 

13. What four memorable victories did he now gain ? What is said 
of the last ? How many rings did he send to Carthage? 

14. To whom was the command of the Roman forces now given? 
What were they styled ? By whom was the city of Syracuse defend- 
ed ? What was his fate ? 

15. What is said of the Carthaginian army ? What plan did Scip- 
io the younger, form ? On his arrival, what did the Carthaginians 
do ? How long had he remained in Italy ? „ 

16. Where was he met by Scipi^? What was the issue of the bat- 
tle ? What were the conditions of '$he peace? 

17. Where did Hannibal finally take refuge? How did he die? 

18. What other war did the Romans carry on at this time? Against 
whom did they next turn their arms?' 1 What happened after the bat- 
tle of Pydna? 

19. What led to the third Punic war. How did Cato usually con- 
clude his speeches? What did the Carthaginians do? 

20. How was this demand received ? What did he make of their 
vessels of gold and silver? How long did the siege last? What is 
said of the scene ? 

21. What was the reduction of Carthage succeeded by? What is 
related of the inhabitants of Numantia? 



Section IV. 

1. What is said of the Romans? After the conquest of Greece, 
what took place ? 



QUESTIONS, 483 

2. What now began to prevail? What did Tiberius Gracchus en- 
deavor to revive? In consequence of this, what followed? 

3. Having been elected to the tribuneship, what did Cains Grac- 
chus procure? What did he then proceed to do? What was the con- 
sequence of these measures? 

4. What is said of .lugurtha? Who fell a victim to his treachery? 
How did he incur the resentment of Rome? What was his fate? 

5. What is said of^the Italian states? What did this give rise to? 
How was it' terminated ? 

6. Against whom did the Romans next turn their arms? What 
generals took part in the Mithridatic war? What- is said of Marius? 

7. On receiving this intelligence, what did Sylia do? What did 
Cinna do in favor of Marias? What did Marius refuse? Having en- 
tered the city, what did he order? What did he next do? 

S. What did Sylla do on entering the city ? What did he cause. to 
be proclaimed? What was the epitaph written by himself? How 
many citizens perished in the civil war? 

9. What is related of Sparticus ? What took place after this event ? 
What plan was formed ? By whom was it detected ? 



Seciton V. 

1. What is said of Pompey ? How was he honored on his return 
to Rome 1 

2. In whom did Pompey find a rival ? Who effected a reconcilia- 
tion between them ? What did they agree to do ? 

3. Where did Pompey remain ? What fell to*-the lot of Crassus? 
What did Csesar choose ? What happened to Crassus ? What was 
the effect of Csesar's career of victory 1 What is said of Csesar ? 

4. What did lie now resolve? When lie arrived on the. banks of 
the Rubicon, what is related of Csesar ? What did he say ? 

5. What is said of Pompey ? Where did he proceed? By whom 
was he followed ? 

6. In the mean time what did Csesar do ? What did he manifest ? 
Where did he proceed ? What was he created ? 

7. While Csesar was thus employed, what is said" of Pompey ? -Be- 
fore coming to any engagement, what did. Csesar do? 

8. Where did a slight engagement take place? Where did Pompey 
lead his forces ? What is said of Csesar ? . What of the armies ? 

9. As the armies approached, what was done ? What did Pompey 
urge ? On what did Csesar insist ? What was the issue of the battle ? 
What was the number of the slain ? 

10. What is said of Csesar on this occasion ? On viewing the field, 
what was he heard to say? 

11. What was the situation of Pompey? How did he receive his 
wife? Where did he sail? What was his fate? What inscription was 
placed on his tomb? 

12. In the meantime what did Csesar do? What is said of the 
throne of Egypt at this time? Of Caesar ? After the battle of Zeia, 
how did Caesar express the rapidity of his victory? 

13. What was Caesar's next course? What called him into Africa? 
What is related of Cato ? 

14. At the conclusion of the war, what did Csesar do? How did he 
entertain the people? How was he hailed, &c. ? 

15. Why was he again obliged to go into Spain? Having triumphed 
over all his enemies, what did he resolve to do? Mention some of the 
acts he now performed ? 



484 



QUESTIONS. 



16. What was formed against him? What had been rumored? 
What happened, as Caesar took his seat in the senate house? How did 
he defend himself? On seeing Brutus, what did he say ? What was 
his age ? 

17. What was done by Mark Antony? Who composed the second 
Triumvirate? 

18. What did they stipulate? What was the fate of the illustrious 
orator? What is said of Rome? 

J 9. What was done by Brutus and Cassius? By whom were they 
opposed? Where did the armies meet? What was the issue of the 
battle? What was the fate of Brutus and Cassius? 

20. What was the fate of Lepidus? Where did Antony go? What 
is related of Cleopatra? What did he lavish on her? What took 
place between him and Octavius? 

21. What is said of the battle of Actium? What was the end of 
Antony and Cleopatra? 

\ 

Section VI. 

1. Who now became sole master of the empire? What did he en- 
deavor to do? By what was he agitated? Whose advice did he fol- 
low ? 

2. What did Augustus effect? What is said of a general? During 
his reign, what was closed? Where did he die? What was his age, 
and length of his reign. 

3. What is said of the abilities of Augustus? Of what was he pa- 
tron ? Who were distinguished in his reign? What was the most mem- 
orable event that took place during it? 

4. Whom did Augustus nominate? How did he commence his 
reign? What excited his jealousy? Whom did he take into his con- 
fidence? What is said of Sejanus? What was his fate? 

5. What orders did the emperor now give? What exclamation did 
he make? When did he die? What took place in the 18th year of 
his reign ? 

6. By whom was he succeeded? What is said of him ? What did 
he assume? How did he die? 

7. Who was next raised to the throne? What was his character? 
Who was led captive to Rome? What did he exclaim? What was 
the end of Claudius? 

8. Who succeeded him ? What is said of Nero? By whom was he 
educated ? What was the first alaiming instance of his cruelty? Who 
were some of the other victims. 

9. What did he cause? How long did the conflagration last? How 
did he avert the odium from himself? During the persecution, who 
suffered martyrdom ? What did the army in Spain do? What was 
the end of Nero ? 

10. Who was now acknowledged by the senate? What is said of 
Galba? What did he adopt? What was his end ? What did Tacitus 
say of him ? 

11. Who was now declared emperor? What was his fate? Who 
succeeded? What was the end of Viteilius ? Who was next? From 
what had he risen ? Of what was he the patron ? 

12. What was the most memoiable event of his reign ? What num- 
ber of Jews perished, according to Josephus? When and where did 
he die? 

13. By whom was he succeeded? What is said of Titus? For 
* : at is his rei^n memorable ? When did he die ? 



QUESTIONS. 485 

14. What is said of Domitian, his successor? What instance is 
given of his cruelty? By what was his reign signalized? How did 
he die ? Of whom was he the last? 

Section VII. 

1. Who was now elected to the throne? What is said of him ? 

2. What is said of Trajan ? What words did he make use of on 
presenting the prefect of the guard ? 

3. What was Trajan? What did he erect ? Of what was. he the 
patron ? What has tarnished his character? When did he die? 

4. By whom was he succeeded? In what was he skilful? What 
did he abandon ? In what did he spend 13 years of his reign ? What 
did he do in Britain ? 

5. What city did he rebuild? What severity did he exercise against 
the Jews? Whom did he adopt for his successor? When did he die? 

6. What did Antonius show himself? Who wrote an apology for 
the Christians? When and where did he die? 

7. What is said of Marcus Aurelius? In a war with the Germans, 
what did he experience? Can you relate, in substance, his letter to 
the senate ? 

8. What is said of the Christian soldiers? Of the Christians dining 
his reign ? Who were the most illustrious of the sufferers? At what 
age and when did he die? 

9. What is said of Commodus? What was his end? By whom 
was he succeeded ? What was the fate of Pertinax? 

10. What was now done with the empire? By whom was it pur- 
chased ? What was his end? Who succeeded? Where and when 
did Severus die ? 

11. To whom did Severus leave the empire? What is related of 
Caracalla? What was his fate? Who was declared emperor? By 
whose command was he put to death, and who succeeded? What is 
said of Heliogabalus? What was his end? 

12. Who was chosen to succeed him ? What is said of Alexander 
Severus'? How and when did he die? 

13. Who succeeded to the throne? For what was Maximin re- 
markable? How did he die ? 

14. How many reigns between that of Maximin and Diocletian? 
What is related of the emperor Valerian? 

15. For what was the reign of Aurelian distinguished? What was 
his most renowned victory? What is said of Zenobia? 

16. What is said of Diocletian ? Whom did he associate with him- 
self in the government? How was the empire now divided? 

17. What happened at this tune? How did Diocletian and Maxi- 
min surprise the world? Where did Diocletian retire ? What is said 
of Maximin ? 

Section VIII. 

1. What had Constantino ? What is related of him as he marched 
at the head of his aimy ? In consequence of this vision, what did he 
do ? Where was a final battle fought? 

2. On the following day, what did Constantine do? What did he 
publish ? What does his reign form ? For what is it memorable? 

3. What was the most important event of his reign? Where and 
when did he die ? What is said of his character ? 

4. How did Constantine leave the empire ? What is said of Con- 
stantius ? When did he die ? 



486 QUESTIONS. 

5. By whom was Coristantius succeeded ? What is said of Julian 1 
\Vhat did he restore ? What did he undertake ? What is said of his 
design ? How did he die? 

6. What is said of Jovian? Who was chosen to succeed him ? What 
is said of the barbarians? How did Valentinian die? 

7. What is said of Valens? How did he die'? Whom did Gratian 
associate with himself? To whom did Theodocius leave his domin- 
ions? 

• 8. What is said of Theodocius? Of his inclinations? On one oc- 
casion,- what is related of him ? What did St. Ambrose do ? 

9. What, happened during the reign of Honorius and Arcadius? 
What is said of the Goths? What did Alaric do a second time? 

10. What is said of Rome? How long did the devastation con- 
tinue? . What is said of Alaric? 

11. By. whom was the country next devastated? With how large 
an army did he invade Gaul? Where and by whom was he defeated? 
How did Valentinian purchase a peace ? ' What is said of the body of 
Attila? 

12. What is said of iEtius? How did Valentinian die ? What was 
done by Eudoxia? What is said of Genseric? 

13. From the reign of Valentinian, what is said of the Western 
empire? When did the empire terminate? Who was the last of the 
emperors? How long had the Roman empire lasted? What does 
Goldsmith observe ? 

Section IX. 

1. What is said of the political state ? What was it first? What 
did it become ? By whom was the republican government over- 
thrown ? 

2. What is said of the kings? What did they wear? By whom 
were they attended ? 

3. Of what did the senate consist? How often did they assemble? 
What was a decree termed ? What were senators called ? 

4. What is said of the consuls? In dangerous conjunctures, with 
what were they clothed ? What age was required ? Who were next 
in dignity? 

5. What, is said of the office of censor? Who were the tribunes? 
Who were the ediles ? The questors ? Of how many orders were 
they ? 

6. What, was the assemblies of the people called ? Of what did the 
comitia curiata consist? What was done at the comitia- centuriata? 
What was the comitia tributa? How long did they continue to as- 
semble ? 

7. What is said of the priests? Of the poniifices ? Who was the 
ponlifex maximus ? The augurs ? The haruspices 7 The quin decem- 
viri? The vestal virgins? 

8. Who were the gladiators? When were these combats introduced ? 
What is said of them, after the triumph of Trajan ? 

9. What was the toga ? The toga virilis ? The tunica 1 What is 
said of the drees of women ? Of hats', &c. ? 

10. What was the principal meal? What is said of breakfast? In 
the eaily ages, what was the diet of the Romans? How did they sit 
at table? What is said of these couches ? 

11. What is said of fathers? Of infants ? What is said of slaves ? 
At the feasts of Saturn, &c, what were the slaves allowed ? 



QUESTIONS. 487 

12. What is said of education ? Of the Roman nations? What was 
pursued? What is said of eloquence, &c. ? Of oratory ? Of poetry ? 
Mention some names that adorn the drama ? What is said of Virgil ? 
What is said of philosophy ? 

JEWISH HISTORY. 
Section I. 

1. What is said of the Jews? When was the eaS I of Abraham? 
Where did he settle ? WhAre did he remove ? Where did he remove 
with his family? 

2. After this time, what happened? What is said of Abraham ? 
Who was admonished to depart? What is the site on which it stood, 
slow called ? What is related of Lot's wife ? 

3. When Isaac had grown up, what did God command? What did 
the holy patriarch do ? Whom did Isaae marry ? 

4. How many sons had Jacob? On a certain occasion, what took 
place ? Where was Joseph carried ? What is said of the wife of 
Potiphar ? What happened to Joseph? 

5. What is said of Pharaoh? Of what was he informed ? What 
did Joseph tell him ? 

6. During the famine, what took place ? What did Joseph ask 
them ? How did the name of Benjamin affect Joseph ? What method 
-did he adopt to bring him into Egypt? 

7. What did they inform their father? What is said of the aged 
father? What did he say ? 

8. To what did Jacob at length consent? In what words did Joseph 
make himself known ? What did he tell thera ? 

9. How long did Jacob live ? What is said of Joseph ? What did 
the patriarch do ? What did he say of the Messiah ? 

10. What is now said of Joseph? Of the new king? To check 
their increase, what was adopted? 

1 L What did God raise up ? Who was this deliverer ? What is 
related of Moses? What was the first and last plague of Egypt? 

12. To what did Pharaoh at length consent? At the expiration of 
this time, what did he do ? What did Moses do ? Where did the Is- 
raelites enter ? 

13. What is related of Pharoah ? When Moses had reached the 
other shore, what did he do? What happened to the Egyptian host ? 

14. What is said of the Israelites? With what were they supplied? 
On one occasion, what is related ? In the second year, what was the 
number found to be ? At Mount Sinai, what was given? What is 
said of Moses? 

15. What did Moses receive ? In these, what are contained? What 
are we directed, &c. ? To prevent, &c, what are we commanded ? 
What do four of these precepts comprehend ? What are these four 
precepts? 

16. What is now said of Moses? What did he do with the idol? 
What did Moses order them ? How many were put to death? 

17. What did Moses now do? When he came down, what is relat- 
ed of him? What did he cause to be built? Describe the tabernacle? 
The tabernacle being finished, what was made? What did it mea- 
sure ? On the mercy-seat, what was placed ? 

18. At this time, what was done ? What was their report? In con- 
sequence of this, to what were they condemned ? What is related of 
Korah ? At what age did Moses die, and where ? After the death 
<of Moses, what did Joshua, his successor^ do? 



488' QUESTIONS. 

Section II. 

1. What was the period during the government of the judges ? 
What do they appear to have been? Who were the most distinguished I 
What is said of Eli ? Into what did the people fall ? In a great bat- 
tle, what took place? At the news of tin's disaster, what happened ? 

2. Who was the last judge ? What is said of him? Why did the 
Israelites desire to be governed by a king? Who was the first king? 

3. What is said of this event? What did the multitude exclaim? 
When did this take place? 

4. What is said of the beginning of the reign of Saul ? What was 
he ordered ? What did he do ? On account of this, what did Samuel 
do? Whom did he anoint as king? How did Saul die ? 

5. What is said of David ? What did he find? What ensued? 

6. What is said of the reign of David ? What did he do ? What! 
is said of the latter part of his reign ? Of his favorite son Absalom ? 
How long did he reign ? 

7. During the reign of Solomon, what is said of the kingdom of 
Israel? What did he direct? What is said of commerce? What 
did Solomon do, when elated by prosperity ? 

8. What was the most remarkable event of his reign ? What was 
it probably ? What books are ascribed to him ? In what does he ap- 
pear to have been immersed ? How many wives had he ? Into what 
was he drawn? When did he die ? 

9. On the accession of Rehoboam, what broke out? Whom did- 
the revolted tribes elect? 

10. What did the policj 7 of Jeroboam produce? What did he or- 
der? Why is his name mentioned with detestation in the scripture? 

11. After this epoch, what does the history exhibit? What a'e 
length happened? What became of the people? When did this 
event take place? 

12. What is said of the kingdom of Judah ? What at length hap- 
pened to it? What became of the inhabitants? How long had it- 
subsisted ? 

13. Unable to resist the power of man, what did they do ? What 
did Cyrus publish?' What did the decree allow? What did he re- 
store? In consequence of this edict, what was done? From this pe- 
riod, why are they called Jews? 

Section IIL 

1» When the temple began to rise above its foundation, what is sairl 
of the" young? What did the progress of the work suffer? In the- 
beginning of the reign of Darius, what was done ?. 

2. What did .Darius continue to do? Through whose influence 
was their interest still greater with Artaxerxes ? What did Ezra ob- 
tain from Artaxerxes? Who seem to have been the last governors of 
Judah? 

3. From this period, to what must most of the calamities be as- 
cribed ? From whom did the candidates purchase the office? 

4. What happened about the year 328? What is related of Ju- 
dica, the high priest? What did Alexander tell his attendants? 

5. What was granted to the Jews by Alexander ? By whom was 
Judea now invaded ? What did Ptolemy, king of Egypt, do ? 

6. What was done by Antiochus the Great? During the scene of 
desolation, what did Mattathias undertake? Where did he retire? 



QUESTIONS. 489 

7. Who was now placed at the head of the army? What is said of 
his achievements? Of the temple ? What did he throw down ? JloW 
did Judas Maccabees die ? 

S. What is said of the brothers of Judas? Of John' Hyrcanus? 
"What did his sons assume? Who conquered Judea ? 

9. After this, by whom was the Jewish monarchy re-established? 
In whose favor?- What did this prinpe do? For what is his reign 
memorable? When this event took place, what is related ? Finding 
himself deceived, what orders did he give ? 

10. Why was St. John beheaded? What took place in the reign 
of Herod the Great? From this period, how were the governors ap- 
pointed ? 

11. What did the rapacity of Florus cause? In the reign of Ves- 
pasian, what took place ? How long did the siege last? What is said 
of the destruction of the city? 

12. What is said of the siege of Jerusalem? Of Titus? Of the 
temple? When did this event take place? $ 

13. How many Jews perished during the siege? How many were 
sold as slaves? Since that time, what is said of the inhabitants? 

14. What is said of the country ? How was it divided ? 

15. What are some of the ancient works of Palestine ? What is 
said of Jacob's well? Of Solomon's pools? What are the pools 
Gihon and Bethesa? Which are the most magnificent of the sepul- 
chral monuments? 

16. Which was the most celebrated city? On what was it built? 
When was a new city built? What are the other most noted cities? 

17. What rite has distinguished the Jewish people ? What is said 
of their diet? Of what did their amusements consist? How was their 
mourning for the dead expressed ? 

18. What is said of their language? On what did they write ? 
What did the situation make them ? What were their arms ? , In 
poetry, what is said of them ? 

MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

1. What were all the nations of antiquity? What was their system 
called ? What were the first objects of adoration ? What do we find ? 
In the process of time, what did they do? 

2. What did the Egyptians regard? Why? To what was divine 
honors paid ? 

3 What is said of the Babylonians ? What was. Moloch ? Baal -peor? 
Dogon ? Among the Celts, where were the sacred rights performed? 

4. Agreeable to this theory, what is said of the wniTd ? What were 
these twelve called? What is Jupiter styled? What did he do? 
What is one ot his chief exploits? How is he represented-? 

5. Who was Apollo? Over whaf did he preside? From where was 
he banished? What were his exploits? 

6. Who was Mars? Of what was he the god ? During the Tro- 
jan war, what is said of him ? How is he represented ? 

7. What was Mercury ? What did he teach ? Who was Vulcan ? 
What is said of him ? What did he forge ? 

8. What was Juno? What was she in her character? [n her 
figure ? What was Minerva 1 What is said of her ? What was sa- 
cred to her? Who was Venus? What is said of her worship? Who 
was Diana? 

9. Who was Ceres? What were celebrated in her honor? What 
was Vesta ? How was she represented ? 

21* 



490 QUESTIONS. 

10. What was Neptune ? How is he represented ? Who was Ocea- 
nus? Triton? Nereus? Proteus? 

1 1. Name the infernal deities? What is said of Pluto? Who was 
Plutus? What was he? 

12. Who was Charon ? How is he represented ? What is said of 
those who did not receive a regular burial ? 

13. Name the Furies? What had they? What was their office? 
Name the Fates? What did each one do? What was the duty of the 
judges? 

14. Name some of the other divinities? "What was Bacchus? What 
is said of his festivals ? What is said of Cupid ? What was the num- 
ber of the Muses, and over what did they preside? 

15. Who were the Graces? What was Pan? Sylvanus? Prea- 
pus? Terminus? What were the Sirens? The Gorgons? The 
Harpies? 

16. What was the number of objects of worship ? Name the most 
celebrated temples? What is said of the temple of Diana at Ephesus? 
By whom was it burnt ? 

17. What is said of oracles? Which were the most celebrated? 
How were the responses given ? What is a question among the learned ? 
What is the best established opinion? 

18. What fact deserves notice? Of what does Lactantius inform 
us ? What is related of Julian ? 

19. Of what did the ancients inculcate the belief? Of hell, what 
picture did they draw? How was Elysium described? 

MODERN HISTORY. 

What have some adopted as the commencement of Modern History ? 

MIDDLE AGES. 

1. What period has been denominated the Middle Ages? 

2. What is said of the early part of the preceding century? What 
had the inundation, &c, swept from the face of Italy? What pre- 
vailed in the East? Under Justin and Justinian, what continued ? 
What is said of Italy? 

3. What prevailed in Gaul? In Africa and Spain? In England ? 
In this violent confusion, what may we infer ? What is said of the 
rude barbarians? Where did learning find an asylum? 

4. What is no matter of surprise ? What were some persuaded? 
To what did this belief give rise? Who were distinguished as writers 
in this, century ? 

5. Who now occupied the throne of Constantinople ? Under the 
reign of Heraclius, what w T as done? 

6. In this state of things, what arose? What did the new race of 
warriors do ? After the taking of Alexandria, what was done ? 

I. Where did the flame of war still continue? What is said of 
France ? Of Spain ? What is said of the state of literature ? 

8. What is said of the empire of the caliphs? Of the emperors of 
Constantinople? Of Philippicus ? Of Leo? 

9. To whom did pope Zachry apply for aid? What did Pepin do? 

10. What is said of literature at the early part of this century? 
What did the Musselmen declare? After the first transports, what did 
they mitigate ? What did this indulgence cause ? 

II. In France, what is said of the arts, &c.? What is said of the 
monks and cjurical men ? Of ignorance and vice ? Of Ireland, &c. 1 



QUESTIONS. 491 

12. Who was called to the throne of France? What is said of this 
prince? What did he establish ? What is said of Alcuin, &c. ? 

13. What is said of the caliphs? Of the liberal arts under the 
Greek emperors? 

14. Towards the middle of this century, what do we find? What 
did Bardes undertake ? 

15. In the West, what is said of learning? la what were they con- 
tinually engaged ? 

16. Amidst the evils that ensued, what is said ? How were many 
of the documents of this period written ? By whom were the most 
strenuous efforts made, &c. ? In the council of Toui, what was re- 
commended? In all the monasteries, what were established? What 
were the students taught? I 

17 In England, what had the incursions of the Danes erased ? Who 
was called to the throne? To what did he turn his attention? 

18. To effect this object, what did he do? Who was a writer of 
this age? 

19. What is said of the Greek empire during this age? Of Ro- 
mans ? 

20. During these revolutions, what was the state of literature ? By 
whom was learning still patronized ? In what were their learned men 
employed ? 

21. What is said of Italy? Of France? Of the feudal system? 
What had each nobleman ? What did he do ? 

22. In Germany, what prevailed? What is said of England? Of 
the monasteries during these times? What did this century produce? 

23. What is said of the Eastern eiftpvre during this century ? What 
is said of the arts, &c. ? Of- grammar ? 

24. Where did literature still meet with patronage? What will no 
•doubt be a subject of surprise? » What is observed of this power? 
What is said of the sciences? Of public academies? 

25. During the eleventh century, what method was adopted in the 
schools? What -did the Trivium include? What constituted the 
Quadrivium ? As the number' of scholars multiplied, what was studied 
in the West? What was the most remarkable event of this century? 

26. At the commencement of this century, what reigned in the 
East? What is said of the sultans? Of the emperors of Constanti- 
nople ? Of the state of literature ? Of schools, &c. ? 

27. What is said of the Greeks? What did the emulation, &c, do? 
What is said of the art of writing? What universities were founded? 
Who were writers of this age? 

28. What is said of the East? What did the princes of the West 
do? 

29. In the West, what was Germany? What did the emperor do? 
What was done by the council? What was the result of the civil war? 

30. What is said of France ? What is said of science hi the West? 
What universities were founded? Who were the most distinguished 
scholars of this age ? 

31. What did this century behold ? What is said of the conquests 
of the Turks? Of the Greek emperors ? 

32. What is said of England ? Of Germany and Italy ? By what 
was all Europe distracted ? 

33. What are some of the most remarkable institutions, &c. ? 
Which deserve a passing notice ? What are they admitted ? 

34. la these institutions, what were established ? What were the 
duties of the monks? 



492 QUESTIONS. 

35. Previous to the discovery of printing, what weres^jce? What 
did the monasteries supply? What books did they tranflBlje? 

36. What did they serve ? Like other institutions, what had they ?. 

SARACEN EMPIRE. 

1. What were the Saracens'? What had they ? What is said of 
the Christian sects ? . 

2. When and where was Mahomet born? What did he pretend? 
Being subject to fits; to what did be attribute them ? 

3. How was the Koran compiled ? Of what does the Koran chief- 
ly consist? What were the two leading principles, of his religion? 
What did he teach ? 

4.. How. did he propagate his religion ? What was inculcated as a 
fundamental principle? What were his ravages called? What did 
they term, themselves? Who were his first converts? 

5. What obliged him to retire ? What is this event called? How 
was he received at Medina?' Shortly after this, what did he do? How 
many battles did he fight? .Where and when did be die.? 

6.. What'is one of the causes of his success ? What were the three 
conditions he proposed to those whom he threatened with war? What 
was another cause of his success? 

7. Hy whom was Mahomet succeeded? What did he invade?. 

8. "What did Omar subdue? What city was taken ? What number 
of volumes was in the • Alexandrian library ? What was Omar's an- 
swers respecting it? What was done with the books? 

9. During his reign, how many cities did he reduce? How .many 
churches did he demolish ? What was his end ? Who succeeded him ? 
In less than half a century, what is said of the Saracen dominions? . 

10. During the reign of Ali, what took place? Who are regarded 
as usurpers? Of what sect, are the. Persians? The Turks? 

11. What did Ali do? What is said of Alnranzor? Of the reign 
ofRasehid? ' Of schools at this period T 

12. What, is said of many of the interior provinces? What had 
Spain, &c, at an early period? How long was Bagdad the capital? 
• 13. When and by whom was Bagdad taken? Relate the manner 

in which AH Mostasem was put to death ? At present, what is said of 
the Saracens ? : 

'FEUDAL SYSTEM: 

1. Where had the Feudal system its origin ? When was it adopted 
in France ? When in England ? 

2. In what order wefe the principles established ? What was the 
grantor called?. And those to whom the grant was made? 

3. What is said of the feudal government? Of the great barons? 

4. What did a kingdom resemble? What is sa.id of the people? 
As each lord was independent, &c, what was natural to suppose? 

.5. What are some of the causes assigned for its decline? Where 
does it exist in a partial degree ? 

CRUSADES. 

1. What were the Crusades? In the year 637, what took place? 
And in 1065 ? . From this period, what is said ? What did the Chris- 
tians of Europe do ? Alter travelling thousands of miles, what is said 
of them ? What is stated? 



questions. 493 

2. Who now undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ? Moved at the 
sight of the oppression, what did Peter do ? How was he received by 
the pontiff? What commission did lie receive? 

3. What is said of Peter? Where. was the subject finally brought? 
After Peter had spoken, who addressed the assembly ? How drd he 
concludb? 

.4. At the conclusion of the discourse, what was said ? From what 
is the word Crusade derived ? . 

5. What is said of the enthusiasm at the Council of Clermont? Of 
domestic quarrels ? Of the sovereigns ? 

6. In the first Crusade, who were the most conspicuous princes ? 
Who held the most prominent place? 

7. What was done early in the spring of 1096? What is said of the 
first division ? Where were many of them slain ? 

8. What is said of the second division? Of the Greek emperor? 
How did he treat the leaders ? What orders did he give ? 

9. What was now the amount of the Christian army ? When Nice 
was on the point of yielding, what did the Greek emperor do? What 
was the effect of this duplicity ? After the reduction of Nice, where 
did they proceed, and what'did they do? 

10. After taking Jerusalem what did the Crusaders do ? After this 
to what was their attention directed ? Who was chosen king ? What 
•did he refuse, -and what did he say ? 

11. What threatened the destruction of the kingdom? What did 
Godfrey do? Where did the two armies meet, and what was' the 
issue of the battle? 

12. Of what did the Crusaders now begin to think? What is said, 
■of Godfrey ? 

. 13. After the death of Baldwin, what took place? What did the 
Saracens do ? What did the Christians find themselves constrained 
*o do ? . 

14. After the arrival of the deputies in Europe, what was done ? 

15. What princes assumed the cross? What happened Conrad? 
Louis? What broke out in the Christian camp? What did Louis 
and Conrad finally do ? 

16. What is said of Saladin ? What did he defeat ? How long had 
•.the holy city remained in possession of the Christians? 

17. When this intelligence reached Europe, what is said ? Who 
•were the most illustrious sovereigns at this time in Europe ? What 
did they do? 

18. What is said of Frederick? What was his end ? What is said 
of Richard ? 

19. What is said of the two monarchs ? Being left to the sole com- 
'mand, what did Richard do? What is said of his -feats of arms? On 
■one occasion what is said of him ? 

20. What did he conclude? What is said of the vessel ? What 
happened to him as he passed through Germany ? What was paid 
for his ransom ? 

2L When was the fourth Crusade undertaken? Who bore a dis- 
tinguished part? 

22. .When was the fifth Crusade undertaken ? Where did they col- 
lect their forces ? Before their departure, what took place ? What 
did Alexius pledge himself to do ? . 

23. After some deliberation what did the Crusaders do ? What is 
said of the old emperor? What happened to the emperor and 
Alexius?. 

24. As soon as this news reached their camp, what did the Cru- 



494 QUESTIONS. 

saders do ? Having thus conquered the capital of the East, to what 
did they proceed ? On whom did the choice fall ? 

25. Satisfied, &c, what did they attempt ? How long did the 
empire last? 

26. What was shortly afterwards undertaken ? Who was the most 
distinguished ? What city did he take ? 

27. What did Frederick II do and obtain ? After the departure of 
.Richard, what took place ? 

28. At this period, who reigned in France ? What did he resolve? 
How did he begin the enterprise? Having ransomed himself, where 
did he proceed ? 

29. When did he undertake a second Crusade? What was the fate 
of his army ? Of the king himself? When did the Crusades termi- 
nate ? 

30. What has this period been styled ? What is said of the enter- 
prise ? What agents combined to call them into being ? 

31. What is capable of producing the deepest emotion ? What was 
deemed a sacred duty ? 

32. What cried aloud for the interposition of the princes of Europe? 
How many were buried in the East ? 

33. Of what have various opinions been formed ? What is gene- 
rally admitted ? In what are these results observable ? 

34. In the first place what did they do ? In the second place? 
What were the great barons obliged to do ? By this means what was 
done ? What is said of the sovereigns? 

35. Previous to this period what is said of commerce? Of the 
attention of the people of Europe ? From this period what may be 
dated ? What is further observed ? 

36. What was one of the most powerful helps towards the revival 
of learning? At the time when the Crusades were undertaken what 
is said of literature ? What did they acquire ? 

37. Hence, what do we find ? When were these universities 
founded ? 

CHIVALRY. 

1. What is Chivalry ? What is said of it ? What did it combine 
as its component elements? 

2. What is said of its early history ? Where may its leading prin- 
ciples be found? When was it embodied into a form ? Where did itf 
prevail ? 

3. What were the three degrees ? What is said of the first rank ? 
Of the second ? Of the third ? 

4. Where were those destined for Chivalry placed? How were 
they kept ? By whom were they surrounded ? What was custom- 
ary for each youth ? 

5. How were esquires employed? How was the candidate re- 
quired to prepare ? What did he solemnly pledge himself to do ? 

6. While on his knees, what did he receive ? What was the con- 
cluding ceremony ? . . 

7. What were the equipments of a knight ? What were his endow- 
ments ? His virtues ? 

8. What did the professed knight possess ? What did the rules of 
the institution oblige every knight to do ? If a lady transgressed 
the laws of decorum, what did he do? 

9. What did Chivalry enjoin ? As soon as one chevalier entered 
the castle of another, what did he consider? If he arrived wounded, 
what was done ? 



QUESTIONS. 495 

10. What were tournaments? What is said of them? If the oc- 
casion was solemn wh;it was done ? 

11. At a tournament, by whom was the place surrounded? Who 
was the Knight of Honor ! When they reached the lists, what was 
done ? 

12. What frequently took place? What is said of the court of 
Rome ? 

13. What were jousts ? How was the challenge given ? If ac- 
cepted, what was done ? 

14. Where may the origin of the duel be traced ? For what was it 
resorted to ? Was it not surprising ? 

15. What had Chivalry ? What did it infuse ? What did it intro- 
duce and foster? What did it cherish ? 

16. What did Chivalry embrace ? Where was the foundation of 
the Knight Hospitallers laid ? What church did they build ? 

17. When and where was the order of the Knight Templars insti- 
tuted? When was the Teutonic order established? 

FRANCE. 
Section I. 

1. What is said of the history of France ? By whom was the king- 
dom originally possessed ? What is said of the Franks ! 

2. What is said of Clovis ? What did he embrace ? How did he 
leave his kingdom ? 

3. When did Pepin become mayor of the palace ? What is said of 
Charles Martel ? By whom was Charles succeeded ? 

4. Finding the people favorable to his views, what did Pepin do ? 
What became of Childeric? 

5. What is said of the Lombards ? What did Pope Stephen do ? 
What is said of Constantine ? To whom did the Romans next turn 
for aid ? 

6. What did Pepin do ? How were the proposals answered ? 
What was the result? What did Pepin do after crossing the Alps a 
second time ? 

7. By whom was Pepin succeeded ? What is said of this mon- 
arch? At the solicitation of the Romans, what did he do? What 
title was conferred on him ? 

8. What did his empire comprise? What did he labor to diffuse? 
Whom did he call to his court? What is said of him with regard to 
his table, kc. ? 

9. When did Charlemagne die ? By whom was he succeeded ? What 
was the reign of this monarch ? How did he leave his dominions ? What 
is said of Charles and Louis ? Where did the rival brothers meet ? 
What was the loss on both sides ? 

10. By whom was Charles succeeded? Who was next elected? 
During the reign of this prince what took place ? After the death of 
Louis V, to whom whs the crown transferred ? 

Section II. 

1. What is said of Hugh Capet ? What did he never assume ? 

2. Who succeeded ? What is said of him ? Who was the next 
sovereign ? By what was the reign of Philip distinguished? 

3. To whom did Philip leave his dominions? On his death-bed, 
how did he address his son? Who was the next sovereign? What 
did he do ? Whom did he marry? 



496 QUESTIONS. 

4. Who next succeeded to the throne ? What were the principal 
events of his reign ? . . 

5. By whom was Philip succeeded? When did he die ? By whom 
was he succeeded? Jn the person of St. Louis what were united ? 
In the early part of his reign what was done ? In what did he engage? 
Where did he die ? 

6. By whom was St. Louis succeeded ? Who was the next sover- 
eign ? What was one'of the most remarkable events of his reign ? Of 
what did they acknowledge themselves guilty ? 

7. But as the persons accused, &c, what became necessary ? Where 
was a council .convened? After a deliberation of several months, 
what was done? . What appears? How many were burnt at Paris? 

8. When did Philip die ? Who were the next two sovereigns? 'On 
the accession of Charles IV, what took place? 

Section- III. 

1. By whom was the succession of Philip disputed? What did 
Philip maintain ? 

2. In the meantime what did Edward do? What battle did he 
gain? What did he.take ? 

3. By whom was Philip succeeded ? During his reign what took 
place ? What is said of the conduct of the prince ? Of John ? On 
returning to England what did he say? 

4. Who succeeded to the throne ? What is said of him ? Of what 
was Charles a patron ?• By whom was he succeeded ? 

5. What is related of this monarch ? During these calamities, who 
invaded France ? What was Henry enabled to do ? 

6. What is said of Charles Vll ? To what place did the English 
lay siege ? 

7. When the hope of saving Orleans was almost abandoned, what 
is related? As she approached the city what is said of her?' 

8. What is said of the city of Rheims ? What did Charles do ? 
After the coronation' what did Joan do ? What was her fate ? 

9. What is said of the impulse which the heroine had given to the 
affairs of France ? How did Charles pass the remainder of his reign ? 

10. What is said of Louis XI ? What did he leave ? On pronounc- 
ing the sentence, what did he order? 

11. Who succeeded Louis? For what was he remarkable? 

Section IV. 

1. What is said of the Duke of Orleans ? What reply did he make 
when urged to punish, &c. ? 

2. What did he do ? What did the French gain under the com- 
mand of Gaston de Foix ? What is said of his death ? 

3. Who succeeded to the throne? What is said of Francis and 
Charles V ? 

4. What was the consequence of the misunderstanding between 
Francis and De Bourbon ? What did Bayard say while Bourbon wept 
over him ? 

5. What did Francis now do ? After he obtained his liberty, what 
is said of him? What was the fate of Bourbon ? What is said of the 

city? '„.'.'. 

6. After the war had raged for some time, what was concluded ? 
What took plaee the following year? When did Francis die? What 
did he possess ? Of what was he the patron? 

7. Who succeeded Francis ? With whom was he engaged in hos- 



questions. 497 

tililies ? By what was his reign signalized? What occasioned his 
death ? 

8. "Who were the next two sovereigns? What is said of the Protest- 
ant religion at this time ? Who were the leading men in the adminis- 
tration ? What was the object of the conference at Poissy ? 

9. After this, what was published ? What is said of the spirit of 
discontent? Dining this, whom did the Protestants lose ? What had 
Charles to lament ? 

10. What was the most memorable transaction of the reign of 
Charles? During the celebration ot the nuptials what took place? 1 
From whom did it proceed ? 

11. In a secret council, what was the king prevailed on to do? 
From what would it seem to have originated? When was the king 
induced to consent to the cruel measure? 

12. When did it take place ? What was the fate of Coligni ? With 
regard to the number of victims w hat is said ? What do some writers 
exaggerate it to ? What was the number according to the reformed 
martyrologist ? 

13. What did Charles do in order to palliate the shame ? What is 
said of Pope Gregory XI J I ? 

14. By whom was Charles succeeded? What is said of Henry I 
How did he die ? 

Section V. 

1. On the death of Henry III, who ascended the throne ? Who was 
declared king bv the army of the League ? In what had he been edu- 
cated ? What did he do in 1593 ? 

2. Of what was this event productive ? What did he do by the 
Edict of Nantes? 

3. To what did he now turn his attention ? Who was the wisest of 
his counsellors ? 

4. How did Henry die? Relate the circumstances of his death ? 

5. What is said of Paris when the news was made known? What 
is said of Henry as a sovereign ? Of his private life ? 

6. Who succeeded to the throne ? Who was chosen prime minis- 
ter ? During the reign of Louis, what is said of the kingdom ? By 
whom was a second rebellion headed ? 

7. What is said of the abilities of Richelieu ? When did he die?- 

8. Who succeeded ? Who was made prime minister? How was 
his administration distinguished? Who regulated the financial affairs? 
Who commanded his armies ? 

9. What did he do ? What league was formed against him ? In 
1701, what was formed ? What is said of his career Of victory? What 
victories were gained by Prince Eugene ? 

10. When did Louis die? What is said of his reign ? What was 
the most impolitic measure? By this edict what was commanded? 
What is said of the number who went into banishment ? How many 
do some authors state ? 

11. What cannot be supposed? What might be offered as some 
palliation for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes? To this, what 
may be added ? What do we disavow ? 

12. What is said of Louis ? What has his reign been styled ? Men- 
tion some of the most distinguished men ? 

13. Who succeeded to the throne ? Whom did Louis choose for his 
chief minister ? By his wise counsels, what was revived ? 

14. In what was France engaged? Who were the two competi- 
tors ? By whom were they supported ? By what was peace restored ? 



498 QUESTIONS. 

15. In 1755, what war was renewed? How did it terminate? 
When did Louis die ? What was the length of his reign ? What 
period did these two nionarchs occupy ? 

Section VI. 

1. Who succeeded to the throne ? What is said of his situation ? 
What were manifested ? What were disseminated ? 

2. What claimed the attention of Louis ? Who was placed at the 
head of this department? Who succeeded Turcot? 

3. At this period, who arrived at Paris ? What is said of their 
cause? When the news of the failure of Burgoyne's expedition 
reached Paris, what took place? In 1778, what was done? What 
was done by Great Britain ? 

4. What are some of the causes assigned as the origin of the 
French Revolution ? 

5. What did Louis convoke ? What was proposed ? After this, 
what demand was made ? 

6. When was the States-General convened? What did the com- 
mons do ? Of this body who was chosen President ? By its first 
act, what did Louis find? 

7. What broke out in Paris? What was done? When this news 
reached Versailles, what did Louis do ? Against whom did the 
populace direct their vengeance ? 

8. Where did they proceed and what did they demand ? By whom 
was Louis protected ? 

9. What is said of the progress of the revolution? How was 
France divided ? What was the next measure of National Assembly ? 

10. In the meantime what did Louis do ? What did the new con- 
stitution establish? What was the next assembly styled? 

11. At an early stage of the revolution, what were formed ? 
What were the two principal clubs ? At the first meeting of the 
National Convention, what was done ? 

12. What is said of Louis ? What sentence was pronounced 
against him? On 2lst of January, what was done? What words did 
he address ? What did his confessor exclaim ? 

13. Who was next marked out for destruction ? On the 16th of 
October what is said of her ? As she passed the streets ? On the 
scaffold ? 

14. During the May of 1794, what was done ? About a year 
later ? 

15. How was the National Convention divided? What is said of 
the mountain party ? Of Brissot, &.c? Of the Duke of Orleans ? 

16. What was done on the motion of Gobet? What is said of the 
churches ? 

17. After this, what is said of the convention ? Who prevailed 1 
What is said of his own career? After the fall of Robespierre what 
was done ? 

18. What is said of the sovereigns of Europe ? At an early stage 
ofthe revolution what was formed? And after the death of Louis ? 

19. In 1796, what was done ? What is said of this extraordinary 
man ? 

20. Where did Buonaparte next direct his arms? In 1798 what 
took place ? Who gained several victories in the north of Italy, &c. ? 

21. At this crisis what did Buonaparte find it necessary to do ? 
By the aid of his partisans, what did he do ? What did he now do ? 

22. What did he now effect ? After the peace of Amiens, what is 
said of Europe ? 



QUESTIONS. 499 

23. How did Buonaparte spend the short interval ? In compliance 
with the contract with Pope Pins VII, what did he do ? What did 
he publish ? What acts of cruelty did he exercise ? 

24. After causing himself to be elected consul for life, what did he 
beg-in to think of? Wtien and by whom was he crowned emperor ? 

2-5. What was done in 1803 and in 1305 ? What did he do at Ulm ? 
At Austerlitz? What did the English fleet gain? Who fell in the 
action ? 

26. What is said of the King of Naples ? What did he compel the 
Dutch to do ? After this what did he subvert, &c. ? 

27. What was formed in 1306? What did the emperor? What 
took place the following year? At the news of the Berlin Decree, 
what was done by the British government? What did the emperor 
issue ? 

23. On what did he next fix his attention ? What did he compel 
Charles IV to do? 

29. What gave rise to the Peninsular war? What did he compel 
the emperor Francis to submit to ? In consequence of treaty what 
followed ? 

30. What is said of Alexander, emperor of Russia ? What was the 
number of his army? 

31. What is said of his progress towards Moscow? What num- 
ber fell on each side at the battle of Borodino? How did he find 
Moscow? How many horses perished in a day? How many men 
recrossed the Niemen ? 

32. In the meantime, what did the emperor do? Where did he 
defeat the allied powers? Where was he overthrown? What is 
said of the combatants in that engagement? 

33. After this battle what did the emperor do? What is said of 
the allies ? What place was fixed for his residence ? 

34. While the allied sovereigns were holding a congress at Vienna, 
what took place ? Landing at Frejus, what did he do ? What is said 
of this exploit ? 

35. As soon as hi3 return was made known, what was he declared ? 
Where was he defeated by the allies ? With what loss ? 

36. After this battle, what did he do ? Where was he sent? When 
did he die? 

37. Who was again placed upon the throne ? What was the go- 
vernment compelled to do? What was the fate of Murat and Mar- 
shal Ney ? 

38. By whom was Louis succeeded ? By what was his reign sig- 
nalized ? 

39. In March 1830, what took place ? In July what ordinance 
was issued ? 

40. What is said of the citizens ? Who was called to accept the 
crown ? What became of Charles ? 

ENGLAND. 
Section I. 

1. In pursuing the history of England, how is the mind struck ? 
How do early records represent her ? Her present history ? 

2. What is said of the authentic history ? According to ancient 
writers, what were the inhabitants ? How did they live ? Of what 
did their armies consist ? 

3. What is said of religion? What did they teach and offer? 
What is said of the oak ? What do the ruins of their temples show ? 



500 QUESTIONS. 

4. What is said of Cassar? By what was he allured? What is 
said of the Roman soldiers ? 

5. What is said of the Britons ? What did they soon oblige the in- 
vader to do ? What did Caesar again do ? 

6. What took place in 44 ? What is said of Caraciacus ? What 
did he exclaim ? In A. D. 59, what took place? When was the 
subjugation finally effected ? 

7. To prevent the incursions of the barbarians, what did the Ro- 
mans do ? By whom were they built? When were their forces en- 
tirely withdrawn from Britain? 

8. What did the northern inhabitants do ? To whom did the Bri- 
tons apply for aid ? Having expelled the Scots and Picts what did 
the Saxons do ? 

9. Among the chieftains who is conspicuous ? What is said of 
him ? After a contest of 150 years, what did the Saxons establish ? 
What is said of Egbert? 

10. Toward the close of the sixth century what took place ? 
What is said of Austin ? What did he explain, and what followed ? 

Section II. 

1. During the reign of Egbert, by whom was the coast of Britain 
visited ? 

2. On coming to the throne, how did Jllfred find himself? In his 
distress what is related of him ? 

3. From his retreat what did he carefully do? In order to ascer- 
tain the state of the Danish camp what did he do ? 

4. Having subdued his armies, what did Alfred do? What is re- 
corded of him ? 

5. How did he divide his time ? For what was he distinguished ? 
By whom was he succeeded ? What is said of Edward ? 

6. By whom was Edward succeeded ? What were his principal 
acts ? 

7. Who succeeded to the throne ? Relate the circumstances of his 
death ? By whom was he succeeded ? To whom did Edred leave 
the throne ? 

8. How is Edwin represented ? What is said of Elgiva ? On the 
dav of his coronation what is said of Edwin ? What did his nobles 
do"? 

9. Shortly after this, what took place ? What did Odo undertake ? 

10. In the second year of his reign what took place ? What is said 
of Elgiva? What will appear evident? 

11. What was one of the first acts of Edgar? For what is his reign 
memorable ? 

12. Hearing of the beauty of Elfrida what did he do ? What is re- 
lated of Afhelwold? What was his end? 

13. By whom was Edgar succeeded ? What was his end ? Who' 
next ascended the throne? Who invaded the kingdom? What be- 
came of Ethelred. ? What did the people do ? By whom was Ethel- 
red succeeded ? 

14. What is said of Canute ? What was he? By what was his 
early life stained? 

15. By whom was Canute succeeded ? What is said of him ? 

16. As the king left no issue, what took place? How was Edward 
distinguished? By whom was the sceptre claimed? What did 
Harold do? What did William resolve ? 

17. The night previous to the engagement, what is said of the ar- 
mies ? Of the two monarchs? Describe the battle ? 



QUESTIONS. 601 



Section III. 



1. After the baUIe of Hastings, what is said of the English ? Of 
William? In his person? 

2. What did he entertain? What did he endeavor to abolish? 
What was one of the most useful acts of his reign ? 

3. What is said of his domestic repose? Of his son Robert? 
What did William do? On one occasion what happened? When 
did he die? 

4. Bv whom was William succeeded ? What was his end ? 

5. Who next ascended the throne? What is said of Robert? 
Shortly after ttiis what was done by Henry ? How long was Robert 
detained a prisoner ? 

6. To whom was the throne left? What did Matilda determine ? 
Who invaded the country ? What ensued ? 

Section IV. 

1. Who now ascended the British throne? Whom did he marry • 
What was the most important achievement? What is said of Thomas- 
a-Backet ? What did he display ? 

2. About this time what happened? What message did the king 
send ? How did Becket reply ? What is said of Henry ? 

3 What is now said of Becket ? How was his time occupied ? 

4. What did Henry begin to do? What did he require? To this 
what was replied ? 

5. What did the king summons ? Here what did he prevail on the 
bishops to sign ? What were several articles in this constitution ? 

6. As the primate returned, what is said of him? What did he 
think proper to do ? 

7. What was soon after effected ? What did the bishops do, on re- 
ceiving these letters ? What did Henry exclaim ? What did the four 
knights do ? 

8. As they left his apartment, what took place ? Wiiat did one of 
their number cry out ? What did the prelate reply ? Upon this what 
was done ? In bowing down what did he say ? 

9. What is said of Henry, at the first news of this event ? Some 
years afterwards, what did he behold? What did he conclude? 

10. What is said of the name of the prelate ? What did Henry re- 
solve to do ? Relate what followed ? 

11. What is said of the latter part of his life ? What are the cir- 
cumstances of his death? When did he die? What is said of him ? 

12. Who succeeded to the throne ? In what did he engage ? 
Whom did he defeat? 

13. On his return what happened to him? What occasioned his 
death ? What is said of Richard ? 

14. Who succeeded to the throne ? What act of treachery did he 
commit? Of what was he deprived? 

15. What is now related of John ? What is said of the sovereign 
pontiffs? 

16. Relate the circumstance which caused the pope to put in exe- 
cution the exteiit of his spiritual power? To what did the pope now 
proceed ? 

17. While it remained in force, of what was the kingdom de- 
prived ? 

IS. Fearful of the invasion of the French monarch, what did John 
do? What is said of the barons? Where did they meet? What 
was he compelled to sign ? When did John die ? Who succeeded ? 



502 QUESTIONS. 

What is said of his history ? What was he compelled to do by the 
barons ? What battle was fought ? 

19. What did Leicester now do ? What is said of young- Edward ? 
What is said of Henry ? 

20. What is said of Edward ? On one occasion what happened? 

21. Henry having restored tranquillity at home, what did he do? 
Being- made umpire between Bruce and Baliol, to whom did he adjudge 
the crown ? What is said of Baliol ? What did Edward do ? 

22. By whom were the Scots roused to assert their independence ? 
What was the fate of Wallace ? In whom did they find a more suc- 
cessful champion ? How was Edward distinguished ? 

23. What did Edward II do ? What is said of him ? 

24. What is said of Isabella his queen ? What was the fate of Ed- 
ward ? 

25. Who succeeded to the throne ? What was his first act on 
coming of age ? What was the late of Mortimer and Isabella? 

26. What did he claim ? What did he do? What was the loss on 
both sides ? 

27. What did he then do ? By whom was he met ? For what is 
the battle memorable ? While the battle raged what was done ? 

28. While the English monarch, &c, what did the Scots do ? What 
battle was fought ? What did the king of France resolve ? By whom 
was he met? Where was he conducted ? 

29. What is now said of Edward ? W r hen did he die ? 

30. What was Edward ? What is said of his military achieve- 
ments ? W T hat did he institute ? What was discontinued ? 

31. By whom was Edward succeeded? In the early part of his 
reign, what was done ? 

32. What followed ? Who was the leader of the insurgents ? What 
was the fate of Tyler ? Biding up to the insurgents, what did the 
king exclaim ? 

33. W 7 hat is said of the hopes the nation had formed of Richard ? 
Where was a battle fought ? What ballad was founded on it? 

35. What is said of Richard while absent in Ireland ? On his re- 
turn what took place ? What became of the deposed monarch ? 

Section V. 

1. What is said of Henry ? What did he soon find ? 

2. By whom was an insurrection headed ? What is said of the 
latter part of his life ? What is related of chief justice Gascoigne ? 
What did the king exclaim ? When did Henry die ? 

3. What is said of Henry the V ? Whom did he receive ? 

4. What did he revive ? What battle did he gain ? What was the 
loss on both sides ? When did he die ? 

5. W 7 ho succeeded ? Who were appointed protectors ? What did 
the French resolve ? 

6. What is said of Orleans ? How was the siege of the city raised ? 

7. What is said of Henry ? Whom did he marry ? What insurrec- 
tion took place ? 

8. What is said of the Duke of Gloucester? At this period what 
commenced ? What is said of this contest ? What were the symbols 
of each party ? How many were sacrificed ? 

9. What happened in the battle of St. Albans ? What is said of 
Edward ? Confiding in his popularity, what did he do ?j 



QUESTIONS. 503 



Section VI. 



1. What is said of Edward? Of Margaret? What battle was 
fought ? 

2. What is related of (he unfortunate queen ? Finding no means 
of escaping, what did she do ? What did the man offer and do ? 

3. What is now said of Edward ? Where was the Earl of War- 
wick sent? During his absence what took place ? 

4. What is said of the Duke on his return to England? Through 
his exertions, what was done ? What was he styled ? What did 
Edward again do ? 

5. What is said of Margaret ? At the solicitation of her adherents, 
what did she again do ? What was her fate ? What was the reply 
of the youthful Edward ? What was his end ? 

6. What is said of the unhappy queen ? Of Henry ? Of Edward 
IV? What did he cause ? When did he die ? By whom was print- 
ing introduced ? 

7. What'did Edward leave ? What did the Duke of Gloucester do ? 
What is said of the two young princes ? 

8 What is said of Richard? Of Henry Tudor? Where was the 
battle fought ? What was the result ? 

* Section VII. 

1. What is said of Henry's accession ? Whom did he marry ? By 
vhat was his reign disturbed ? Who were they ? 

2. What is said ol Lambert ? Of Warbeck ? What was their 
ite? 

3. After a reign of twenty-four years, of what did he begin to think ? 
i many respects what may Henry be considered ? What did he 
lact, &c. ? 

4. During his reign what took place? What i3 the greatest stain 
upon his character? 

5. Who succeeded ? What did he possess ? What will we see in 
the sequel ? 

6. By his prodigality what did he do ? Against whom did he de- 
clare war? Where was James of Scotland defeated and slain ? 

7. About this period what did Henry do ? What were the most 
memorable transactions of his reign ? Who was his first wife ? 

8. Who was among her maids of honor ? What is said of this ac- 
complished lady ? Of his prior marriage ? After eighteen years what 
did he begin to feel ? What is said of the pope ? Who was his prime 
minister ? 

9. What is said of this extraordinary man ? Of the fame of his 
talents ? Before his death what remarkable words did he utter ? 

10. Who was chosen to fill the see of Canterbury? Growing im- 
patient, what did he resolve ? For this purpose what was done ? 
What had the king done before receiving the decision of the court ? 

11. What did the king now do ? What is said of bishops Fisher 
and More ? What was done by act of parliament ? What does Mr. 
Collier say of these institutions ? 

[_ 12. What did he plunder? What did he order ? 

13. In less than three years what happened ? Who was his fourth 
wife ? What is said of Thomas Cromwell ? Who was his fifth wife? 
Who was his sixth wife ? When did Henry die ? 

14. Who succeeded ? For what is the reign of this prince distin- 
guished ? What was composed by Cranmer 1 By the adoption of 
this liturgy what was effected ? 



504 QUESTIONS. 

15. What is said of the young kins;? To whom did he leave the 
crown ? What is said of Lady Jane Grey ? 

16. Who suffered on the scaffold ? What was again entered into 
against Mary ? 

17. What was Mary now induced to do? On the fatal morning 
what as said of her ? When brought forth, what did she do ? 

18. For what has Mary been censured ? What does Dr. Lingard 
observe ■? Whom did she marry ? What place did the French take? 
When did she die ? 

19. What is the foulest blot upon her memory ? What might be 
remarked? With this exception, how is she regarded ? What does 
Mr. Collier say of her ? 

20. What was one of her first measures? 

21. On the death of Mary who ascended the throne ? What is said 
of Elizabeth? What did she assume and revive? What was made 
high treason ? 

22. Who was the next heir to the throne ? What is said of the 
young queen ? After a succession of events, what took place ? 

23. In 15S8 what was done ? For this purpose what did he fit out ? 
Who commanded the English fleet? What was the fate of the Ar- 
mada ? 

?•■- 24. Who were some of her eminent statesmen ? Who were her 
favorites ? 

25. At length into what did she fall ? What expression did she 
make use of? When did she expire ? 

26. What did Elizabeth possess ? What was she in principle ? Of 
what did she possess few? By what was her reign distinguished ? 
What was introduced by Raleigh ? 

Section VIII. 

1. Who succeeded Elizabeth ? After his arrival in England, what 
was formed against him ? What is said of Raleigh ? 

2. What otner conspiracy followed ? Who was one of the leaders ? 

3. What was the misfortune of James ? During the reign of Mary, 
who made their appearance in England ? At the accession of James 
what did they expect ? Where did many of them go ? 

4. When did the king die ? What is his character? W T hat was he 
styled by the Duke of Sully ? 

. 5. Who succeeded ? Whom did he patronize ? Whom did he 
marry ? 

6. What led him to adopt the resolution of ruling without the aid 
of parliament ? What did he dissolve ? 

7. What was the end of Buckingham? What was a new parlia 
ment formed for ? What was passed ? 

8. At this period, how did the current of public opinion seem to 
run ? To what measure did Charles now proceed ? How was he met 
in Scotland ? 

9. After eleven years, what did the king do ? What is said of this 
body ? What course did the king pursue? 

10. What was one of the first acts of the new parliament? What 
is said of Stafford's defence? 

11. What did the contention between the king and the parliament 
hegin to wear? When did the war break out ? Where was the first 
overthrow? After this victory what is said of Archbishop Laud? 

12. Where were the royalists defeated, and what did Charles do? 
What was done in the house of commons ? What did they refuse ? 
W-bat was the issue of the trial ? 



QUESTIONS. 



505 



13. How did he bear the sentence ? How did he take take leave 
of his children ? On reaching the scaffold, what did he do? When 
was he executed ? 

14. What is said of Charles and of those engaged in his death ? 
What did the house of commons order ? 

15. After the king's death, what did the commons do ? What was 
issued ? What are we now to behold ? What was effected through 
the influence of Cromwell? 

16. What is said of the people of Ireland and Scotland ? Of Crom- 
well ? After taking Drogheda, what followed ? 

17. Where did he next march? After this battle, what is said of 
young Charles ? On one occasion how did he pass the day ? 

18. At this period what is said of the republic ? What did the 
navigation act produce ? 

19. What is said of the parliament ? An unfavorable reply being 
returned to a petition, what did Cromwell do ? What did he cry 
out? 

20. How did he call a new parliament ? What name did this body 
receive ? What did the officers of the army do? 

21. What is said of the Protector? What title did he receive? 
What is said of his administration ? 

22. What did Cromwell find ? What did the nation dp ? When 
did he die ? 

23. Who was proclaimed protector in his place ? What did he do ? 
What succeeded ? What is said of General Monk? Of what was 
parliament informed ? How was the letter received ? 

24. What was the demeanor of Charles ? What act was passed ? 
Who were executed? What was done with the bodies of Crom- 
well, &.C. 

2o. For what was Charles soon distinguished ? What doctrine 
now came into use, and what epithets originated from it ? What is 
said of the new parliament? 

26. Whom did Charles marry? What did he barter away? What 
war was declared ? How did it terminate ? 

27. By what was London visited ? In the following year, what 
took place ? To perpetuate the calamity, what was erected ? 

28. How did Whigs distinguish themselves ? What pretended plot 
was discovered ? What other conspiracy was detected? Who were 
accused of being concerned in it ? 

29. How did the king die? What, act was passed in his reign? 
Who were distinguished poets? What is said of Par? 

30. Who succeeded to the throne ? By what was the early part of 
his reign disturbed? What was the fate of Monmouth? 

31. To whom was a commission issued? How is Jeffreys repre- 
sented ? 

32. What is said of James ? What was his wish ? In 1687, what 
did he issue ? How was this grant received ? 

33. In 1688 what followed ? What did the order occasion ? 

34. What did his enemies do ? To whom did they apply ? On 
receiving the invitation what did William do? In a few days, how 
did James find himself? Who left him among others ? 

35. At the news of this defection what did he exclaim ? Where 
did he send his queen and son? 

36. After the king's departure, what was done ? What did they 
declare? What did they pass? 

37. After some time, what did James resolve? What took place 

22 



506 QUESTIONS. 

in 1690? What did James exclaim? What was the issue of the 
battle ? 

38. What did James do ? Where did he pass the remainder of his 
days? When did he die ? What occasioned the death of William ? 

39. On whom did the crown now devolve ? What war was imme- 
diately declared? Who was appointed commander-in-chief ? What 
victories were gained ? How was the war terminated ? 

40. What was the most memorable event of her reign ? What w; a s 
taken by the English ? When did she die ? What has this period 
been styled ? What were some of the most distinguished names ? . 

Section IX. 

1. Who succeeded to the throne ? What is said of his reign ? 

2. What committee was appointed ? Who were impeached ? 
What did these proceedings excite ? What is said of the Febellion? 

3. At this time what was devised ? When did George die ? 

4. Who succeeded ? To what was he inclined ? Who was the 
most prominent person in the administration? 

5. What is said of the military operations of this reign ? What 
did England espouse ? What was this war called ? How was peace 
restored ? 

6. During the absence of the king, what took place ? Where did 
he land? What took place in 1746? ■ 

7. Towards the close of his reign, what took place ? How was it 
terminated ? During this war, what happened ? 

8. When did George II die? Among the poets who stand pre- 
eminent ? 

9. Who succeeded to the throne? How did he commence his 
reign ? What took place at this period ? What is said of Pitt ? 

10. What were the other most important events of this reign ? 

11. What were some of the achievements of the British period? 
When did George die? What is said of the last ten years of his life ? 
Of his abilities ? 

12. Who succeeded to the throne ? What were some of the most 
important events of his reign ? What are the three exceptions to the 
Catholic Relief Bill ? 

13. When did George die and by whom succeeded ? At his death 
who succeeded ? 

SCOTLAND. 
Section I. 

1. What is said of the history of Scotland ? Whom do they con- 
sider as the founder of their monarchy ? What is said of him ? How 
were the people divided ? By whom were the latter subdued ? 

2. On the death of Alexander, what took place ? To avoid civil 
war, what did they resolve ? What did Edward do ? 

3. What is said of the barons ? What ensued ? What did Ed- 
ward do ? 

4. At this critical juncture, what took place? What is said of his 
deeds ? What did he persuade Bruce ? What is said of the Scots ? 

5. In the reign of his successor, what battle was fought? How 
did it terminate ? When did Bruce die ? By whom succeeded ? 

6. In the year 1331, what took place? What followed ? 

7. What is said of the spirit of freedom ? Of Baliol ? 

8. What is said of David? By whom was he succeeded? 



QUESTIONS. 507 

Section II. 

t? Of the Earls of Douglass and Percy? 
On one occasion what took place ? When did Robert die ? 

2. What is said of the reign of this prince ? Of the Duke of Al- 
bany ? Where did he conduct the young prince ? 

3. What is said of Robert ? On the\vay what happened to the 
prince ? At the news, what is said of Robert ? 

4. How long was James detained in captivity? In 1424 what did 
he do? With. what was he presented by the king of England? 

5. On his arrival how did he find the affairs of Scotland ? What 
was the first act of James ? What did he cause ? 

6. To what did James turn his attention ? At Perth, where did he 
take up his abode ? What was entered into against him ? 

7. How did the king pass the 20th of February ? At the first alarm, 
what was done? What is said of Lady Catharine ? Of Dunbar? Of 
James ? 

8. What is said of the traitors? Of the Earl of Athol ? When 
did James die ? What w r as he ? 

9. Who succeeded? In 1433 what took place? What is related 
of JLivington and Crichton, and what was the fate of the two sons of 
Douglass ? 

10. What is said of James ? How was he killed ? 

11. Who succeeded ? What is said of him? What was formed 
against him ? 

12. On receiving this intelligence what did the king do ? Describe 
the battle? As he retreated what happened? Being asked who he 
was, what did he reply ? What was his end ? 

13. By whom was the throne occupied? What did he regret? 
What did he cause? 

14. Whom did he marry? In what did he excel? During his 
reign what was weakened ? 

15. When did he enter England? Where did he pitch his camp? 

16. After the signal was given what is said of the combatants ? 
Describe the battle ? What was the fate of James ? 

17. By whom was he succeeded? In his thirteenth year, what 
did the king do ? What is said of his person ? Having effected his 
escape, what did he do? 

IS. What was his character ? What was done by Henry VIII ? 
What did James propose ? What did the barons do ? What after this 
was proposed ? What did the barons again do ? At this news what 
is said of the king ? Of what was he informed ? What did he ex- 
claim ? 

19. What is said of Mary, Queen of Scots? What proposals were 
made and how were they received ? 

20. All prospects of a union being ended, what was resolved ? As 
the divorce, &c., had never been ratified, what did the Catholics re- 
gard and look upon ? What was Mary induced to do ? 

'' 21. What is said of the Reformers ? Of the queen regent? During 
the contest what took place ? 

22. In 1560 -.what happened' What did Mary resolve to do? 
What is said of her education and accomplishments ? Where did she 
land? 

23. What is said of her as she rode through the capital ? What 
was she ? What happened on the Sunday after her arrival ? 

24. What is said of the princes of Europe ? On whom did Mary 
turn her affections ? 



508 QUESTIONS. 

25. After her marriage, what took place ? What is said of the 
queen? 

26. What did she soon find ? What did he demand ? What did he 
do? 

27. A few months after this event, what is said of Darnley ? On 
the 9th of February, 1567, what took place ? 

28. On whom did the suspicion fall ? What is said of Bothwell 
and several others ? What did the jury do ? What did Bothwell now 
do ? 

29. After this, what is related of Mary! What did she request? 
What obstacle was in the way ? Where did Bothwell lead the queen ? 

30. What have many of the ablest historians deduced? 

SI; What is said of the nobles ? What battle followed ? What is 
said of Mary ? On the following morning where was she conveyed? 

32. What was she compelled to do here ? What did Mary do after 
some months ? Where was 3he met? What resolution did she take ? 

33. What is said of Elizabeth ? How many years did the queen 
languish in captivity? At length, what was resolved? 

34. How did the messengers find Mary? How did she receive 
them ? What did she protest ? What did the Earl of Kent observe ? 
What did Mary reply ? What did she ask ? 

35. On the evening previous to her execution, what did she do ? 
Before retiring, what did she do ? What did she ask ? 

36. What did she do ? As it inclined towards morning ? When the 
sheriff entered, what did she reply? Whom did she meet? What 
did she tell and deliver to him ? At the mention of her son, what is 
said of Mary ? 

37. How did she advance to the hall of execution ? What did Mary 
reply? For what did she offer her prayers ? Having taken leave of 
her attendants, what did she do ? 

38. What is said of James VI? In 1603, what took place ? On the 
Sunday before his departure, what did he do? During the reign of 
Queen Anne, what was effected ? 

IRELAND. 
Section I. 

1. What is said of the early history ? The first inhabitants ? How 
does this appear probable ? 

2. By consulting the ancient authors, what will appear reasonable ? 
What is certain ? What is admitted ? 

3. What was the religion and chief object of adoration ? What 
else ? What was annually celebrated ? With the worship of fire 
what was associated ? What is said of the priests ? 

4. How was Ireland divided ? What is said of every subordinate 
prince? Of the right of primogeniture? Of the monarch himself? 
From this state of things what may we infer? 

5. What are we informed by the Irish annalists ? What name is 
distinguished ? What renders his name an important era ? In these 
assemblies what do we observe ? Who were the leading persons ? 

6. What offices were transmitted hereditary ? At the Christian era 
who occupied the throne? 

7. Who was one of the most illustrious monarchs? To him, for 
what is the country indebted ? What ancient custom of the country 
is mentioned ? What happened to Cormac ? 

8. By whom was Christianity introduced ? In his youth, what is 
said of him ? Having escaped, where did he repair ? 



QUESTIONS. 509 

9. What is said of the attention of the Roman pontiff? On the 
death of Palladius, who was selected ? When did he arrive in Ire- 
land ? 

10. What is said of the fruit of his labors ? What was he permitted ? 
In a few years what did St. Patrick do? What is he said to have 
done? Where and when did he die ? 

11. During this period, what is said of literature? Of the fame of 
her institutions ? Hence, what do we find? 

12. What took place towards the close of the eighth century ? 
What will it be sufficient to notice ? 

13. In 1014, what did the Danes do ? Who at this time was the 
chief king ? What did he do ? When was the battle fought, and 
what was the issue ? 

14. What is said of Brian ? Relate the circumstances of his death? 
What is said of the power of the Danes ? Of the blow struck on this 
occasion ? 

15. What is said of Irish literature ? Of the schools ? Of her lite- 
rary institutions ? 

Section II. 

1. As early as 1155 what had Henry II conceived ? What did he 
see ? 

2. With this view, to whom did he apply ? What did the pontiff 
do? 

3. What is said of Dermot Mac Murchad ? What did he offer to 
Henry ? How was he received by the English monarch? What did 
he give him? 

4. What did Dermot now do ? What did he promise to the Earl of 
Pembroke ? What to the two brothers ? 

5. After some short time, what do we find him doing ? What was 
this submission intended for? In 1169, what took place ? 

6. When was the first attack made ? What is said of seventy of 
the inhabitants of Waterford? What was determined? What was 
their fate ? 

7. What took place subsequent to this event? When and where 
did the English monarch land ? What was the first design of the 
king ? 

8. After receiving the homage of the King of Desmond, what did 
Henry do ? What is said of the example of these princes ? How did 
Henry return ? 

9. Here, what are we told ? Who was among the rest ? In 1175, 
what took place ? 

10. In 1185, what did Henry do ? What is said of the behaviour of 
the young prince ? What did they agree ? What did Henry do when 
informed of this danger ? 

11. In 1315, what took place? In the reign of Henry VII, what 
was diminished ? How ? What did James I abolish and substitute ? 

12. What is said of the loyalty of the Irish in favor of the Stuarts? 
Who was sent to the country ? To what pla:e did he lay siege ? 

13. On taking the town what did Cromwell order ? How many 
survived ? 

14. What city was next taken, and what was renewed ? What was 
the excuse for these barbarities? 

15. At the conclusion of the war, what is said of the nobility and 
gentr}' ? What ordinance was made out ? 

16. In 1653, what was done ? By this decree what lands w r ere for- 
feited ? In this division what did the Puritans declare ? 



510 QUESTIONS. 

17. What is said of the act ? How did they deem the country ? 
Who were the sufferers ? What is said of many of the native inhabit- 
ants ? Of the very name of Irish ? What were the peasants iorbid- 
den ? What were clergy ordered? 

18. What is said of the history of Ireland? On the 12th of March 
1688, what took place ? What did he convoke ? What was one of 
the first acts ? 

19. On the part of William, what is said? What did he resolve? 
Where did James take up his position ? What did the French officers 
do? 

20. What were his officers and soldiers persuaded? On the last 
day of June what did William do? After this what is related of him ? 

21. On the first of July what took place? How was the conflict 
sustained? What is said of William ? Of James, and what did he 
exclaim ? 

22. Before the fate of the battle was decided, what did James do? 
What was the common cry? What became of James ? Whom did 
the Irish lose ? Wliat did he reply, when asked if the Irish would 
fight again ? 

23. By whom was the Irish army chiefly directed ? In 1691, what 
did James obtain ? On whom was the chief command conferred ? 

24. After the loss of Athlone, where did St. Kuth retire ? What 
did he prepare ? What is said of the engagement ? What was the 
fate of St. Ruth? What was the consequence of this misfortune ? 

25. What was the loss on both sides? What is said of General 
Ginckle ? 

26. Where did the Irish forces retire ? What was finally deter- 
mined ? By the third of October, what were concluded ? 

27. By this treaty what was provided ? What was agreed ? 

2S. Two days after the treaty, what arrived? What was done 
with the French fleet? 

29. W T h at is said of the treaty of Limerick ? In 1695, what took 
place ? What committee was appointed ? What penal laws were 
added ? What is said of a Catholic teacher ? Of the child of a Ca- 
tholic ? What rewards were offered ? 

Section III. 

1. In 1782, what did Ireland demand and obtain? In 1784 what 
took place? 

2. What were the most conspicuous associations ? When was the 
society of United Irishmen instituted ? What were the leading objects 
of this association ? What were their avowed objects of pursuit? 
What was understood by these ? 

3. To oppose the objects of the United Irishmen, to what did the 
aristocracy proceed? What does Sir Jonah Barrington consider? 
When is their grand festival held ? How is the charter toast drank ? 
What are the words ? What was the concluding part ? 

4. In 1784, what took place ? When and where was the first 
Orange lodge formed ? How do the members pledge themselves ? 

5. In 1796, What did the United Irishmen resolve ? Who were 
sent to negotiate a treaty ? What armament sailed ? What hap- 
pened the fleet ? 

6. What became the policy of the government ? What was 
proclaimed? At the same time 5 what was held out? What follow- 
ed in consequence of this? 

7. On the 23d of May, What took place? What is said of the 



QUESTIONS- 511 

insurgents'? Where were they more successful'? What followed 
the taking of Ennescorthy and Wexford'? Where were they again 
defeated'? 

8. Where was their principal encampment'? What took place 
on the 22d of June] What was the total loss of property] What 
the loss of the royal army] Of the insurgents] 

9. Late in August, what arrived] What was done in the fol- 
lowing month? 

10. What now began to be agitated] What was it] When was 
it rejected] After what manner and by what majority was it car- 
ried in the Irish Parliament] In 1801, what was done for the first 
time] 

11. What is said of the Catholics? What hopes were held out 
to Protestants'? What sum was distributed in bribes? What sum 
was given to boroughs] 

12. What are the great evils entailed on Ireland by the Union] 
At that time, what was the national debt of Ireland and of Eng- 
land] In 1816, what did the British government do] By this act, 
what was the debt of Ireland increased to] As the Irish repre- 
sentatives in the British Parliament are inferior in number, to 
those of England, what follows] While Ireland is deprived of her 
national legislature, what is said of her representatives] 

SPAIN. 

1. What was Spain early called] What is said of its present 
name] What were the original inhabitants] 

2. Who passed over to Spain] When] By whom were the 
Phoenecians displaced] What is said of the Gothic princes] 

3. What were the infidels named] At their approach, what did 
the Goths do? How was Spain divided? During the struggle, 
what grew into existence] 

4. In 1479, what took place] What is said of Navarre] What 
did Ferdinand and Isabella do] What did the fall of Granada 
terminate] 

5. To what did they turn their attention? During this period 
what took place] 

6. In 1517, who succeeded to the throne] On the death of Max- 
imilian, what did Charles do] When was he elected emperor] 
What is said of his dominions] 

7. What is said of the reign of Charles] What resolution did 
he form] Where did he retire] How did he close his eventful 
life] 

8. Who succeeded] What were the most important events of 
his reign] By whom was he succeeded] What is said of the 
subsequent history of Spain] What did the Spaniards do] Since 
the reign of Philip III., what is said of Spain] 

9. For what was this institution established] What is said of 
its origin] What took place in 1484] 

10. What is said of the Abigenses] What was deemed expedi- 
ent] What were they called] What does not appear] 

11. In the process of time, what was done by the sovereigns of 
Europe] What became necessary] Hence what followed] 

12. What circumstances led to its establishment in Spain] What 
did the Cortes demand] What is said of Isabella] 

13. Of what is the tribunal composed ? What is said of the in- 



512 QUESTIONS. 

ferior inquisitors? What was the duty of ihe tribunal ? What is 
said of the e clesiasties who composed the tribunal ? 

14. What is said of the Inquisition? Of ihe King ? What is 
said of the punishments in different countries? At Rome? In 
Spain ? What was done with the goods ? If the accused recant- 
ed, what was done ? 

PORTUGAL. 

1. "What is said of the history ? About the year 1094, what took 
place ? Who succeeded Henry ? What did Alphonso do ? 

2. For what is the reign of John 1. distinguished? During the 
reign of John II. what was done ? 

3. In 1580, what did Philip II., do ? In 1640, what was done ? 
In 1807, by whom was Portugal invaded? What did the royal 
family do? In 1823, what did Brazil do? In whose favor did 
Pedro resign his claim ? What followed ? 

POLAND. 

•1. What does the history of Poland exhibit? What did this 
prince do? What is said of Sobieski? Why was he elected? 
What did he maintain? 

2. Who was chosen to succeed him? What did he. declare? 
What was the result? What happened after the defeat of the 
Swedish monarch, at the battle of Pultowa? 

3. In 1763, who was elected? What followed? In 1772, what 
was perpetrated ? 

4. How were the divisions made? What was Poland obliged 
k> do ? In 1701, what took place ? 

5. What is said of the empress of Russia? Of the Poles? 
Whom did they choose for their general? What is said of War- 
saw? What was now agrepd on ? 

6. What is said of Stanislaus? What followed? During the 
reign of Nicholas, what was made ? What did their courage 
prove ? 

RUSSIA. 

1. What is said of the early history? In the fifteenth century? 
What is said of civilization ? How was youth spent ? 

2 What was his first military expedition ? To improve the 
rranners of his court, what did he do? After this what did he 
resolve ? How did he travel ? Where was he employed ? When 
did he return to his own dominions ? 

3 Whom did Peter marry? What is said of Charles XII.? 
Where did thev meet ? What were the other principal events of 
his reign ? When did he die ? 

4 What is said of Peter? By whom was the empress succeed- 
ed? To whom did he leave the throne? What was her reign ? 
To whom did she leave the throne ? What revolution took place ? 

5. What is said of her reign? By whom w s she succeeded? 
Whom did he marry ? What is related of her? 

6. What was Catharine proclaimed ? What did she do ? What 
did she possess ? By whom was she succeeded ? 

7. Who next succeeded to the throne? In 1812, what took 
place ? At Borodino, what took place ? When the emperor made 
his retreat, what did Alexander do ? 



QUESTIONS. 513 

8. When did be die, and by whom succeeded ? By what is his 
character siained ? 

PRUSSIA. 

1. What is said of the history, and by whom was it inhabited ? 
In 1594, what took place? Who succeeded Sigismpnct in 1619? 

2. By whom was George succeeded ? What did he succeed in 
removing? By whom was he succeeded, and did he assume? 
What is said oi' Frederick? 

3 What is said of Frederick II? On his accession, what did 
he do ? What was formed against him ? What ensued ? 

4. For wha was Frederick remarkable ? Ou one occasion, 
what orders did he give? Relate what followed ? 

5. In the latter part of his reign, to what did he apply himself? 
What was he in religion, and who was his companion ? 

6. When did he die? Who succeeded in 1797? What defeat 
did he suffer ? In 1812, what did the Prussian monarch do ? 

GERMANY. 

1. What is our knowledge of the inhabitants? In the time of 
Julius Caesar, how were they divided? On the decline of the 
Western Empire, what was the fate of the Germans ? 

2. In 843, what look place? Andin887? And in 912 ? What 
is said of Henry I ? 

3. Who was next elected ? In 961, what did he do ? When did 
he die? Who succeeded? What is related of Henry II? 

4. Who succeeded in 1056? For what is his reign distinguish- 
ed ? What was the latter part of his life ? When did he die ? 

5. For what was the reign of Frederick I., signalized? Whst 
happened after the reign of Conrad IV? How was the disorder 
terminated? What is said of the new emperor? What did he 
leave ? 

6. What took place in the reign of the prince ? Where was the 
Austrian army defeated ? Bv whom was this event effected ? 

7. For what is the reign of Henry VII., memorable ? What is 
said of the rich ? Of wolves? Of cataracts of waters? 

8. Who succeeded to the throne? By whom was Maximilian 
succeeded? What is said of his reign ? What cities did he take ? 
Before his death, what did he do? What is one of the most re- 
markable events in the history of this empire ? 

9. By what were the reigns of Ferdinand the first and second, 
signalized ? In what had this war its origin ? What was on the 
one side ? On the other ? 

10. On the death of Charles VI., who succeeded ? By whom 
was her tiile succeeded ? To what did this give rise ? What is 
said of the empress ? 

11. By whom was Maria succeeded ? By what was bis reign 
signalized? By whom was he succeeded ? To whom did Leopold 
leave the throne? In 1804, what did Francis do ? What was he 
compelled to do by Napoleon ? How long had the German empire 
lasted ? After the second dethronement of the emperor, what was 
formed ? 

SWEDEN. 

1. What is said of the early history ? In the 14th century, what 
was done ? During the reign of Christian, what took place ? 



514 QUESTIONS. 

2. What is said of Gustavus ? Where did he lose his life ? By 
whom was he succeeded ? In 1G32, what did she do ? 

3. Who ascended the throne in 1697? After his accession, what 
did he find? What memorable victory did he obtain ? 

4. Havmg reduced Courland, what did he do? When did he 
invade Russi i ? Where, and by whom was he met? Alter this 
where did Charles retire ? Being ordered to leave Turkey, what 
did he do? 

5. What did he resolve? At what season did he invade the 
country? On the 11th of December, what did he do? In the act 
of falling ? 

6. On the death of Charles, what is said of Sweden ? In 1771, 
who succeeded ? Of what did he deprive the Senate ? How did 
he die ? 

7. To whom was the crown transferred? Through the empe- 
ror's influence, who was declared crown prince, and when did he 
ascend the throne ? 

DENMARK. 

1. When does the history of Denmark begin to emerge from 
obscurity ? In 1387, who ascended the throne ? In 1448, who suc- 
ceeded ? 

2. What is said of the government ? During the reign of Fred- 
erick IV., what is said of Denmark ? What is said of Christian 
VII ? What is related of this unfortunate princess ? 

3. When did Frederick VI., succeed ? During his reign what 
took place? " 

NETHERLANDS AND HOLLAND. 

1. What did these territories formerly comprise ? When were 
they united to the German empire ? In 1443, what took place ? 

2. In 1555, to whom were iney resigned ? In 1795; what 
is said of them ? Into what were they erected by the Congress of 
Vienna ? What is he styled ? 

ITALY. 

!. When and -by whom was Italy conquered? What did Theo- 
doric do ? Where did he fix his residence? What was he ? 

2. 'By whom' was Italy wrested from the Goths? Into whose 
hands did it next fall? Who invaded the country? How long 
did their kingdom last? 

3. In 774, what took place? What did pope Stephen? What 
is said of the emperor ? Whom did the Romans now call to their 
assistance ? What was done first ? 

4. What did Pepin immediately do ? After his departure, what 
was done by the Lombard ? What did Pepin again do ? Before 
his return what grant did he make? What are these territories 
called? What was done by Charlemagne? 

5. What are the principal states of Italy ? What is said of the 
Veneiians? Of Florence ? Of Genoa? ' For what is San Mari- 
no distinguished? Under whose protection? How long has it 
maintained iis independence? 

G. During the pontificate of Gregory VII., what took place? 
What had been a custom in various countries? What was this 
ceremony called ? What was done at the assembly at Worms ? 



QUESTIONS. 515 

7. Upon receiving the intelligence, to what did Gregory proceed ? 
With the advice of a numerous council, what did he do ? What 
is .said of this poWer ? Of this doctrine ? Give some instances 
in which it was supported by sovereigns themselves. What does 
not appear ? 

8. In an age, &c, what was soon admitted? In the case of 
Henry IV., what do we hear? To pronounce this sentence, be- 
longed to wh\>m ? 

9. What is said of this power. &c? How was it injurious to 
the church ? Hence, what do we find ? How was it injurious to 
the state ? 

10. What did German princes do ? What is said of the distress- 
ed monarch ? How did Henry meet Gregory ? How long was 
he kept on trial ? 

11. What was the repentance of Henry? Having assembled 
his army, what did he do? Whom did the German princes choose 
in his place? What ensued? What was the fate of Rudolph? 
What did Henry now do? Where did Gregory retire? Where 
did he remove ? What words did he utter before his. death ? 

12. In 1311, what took pl.ace ? What was the state of Italy at 
this period? During the contest, where aid the popes remove? Iu 
1377, what happened? To what did this give rise? 

13. What is said of the family of the Medici? What does their 
power form? What was Cosmo? What is said of his dwelling? 
What is said of Cosmo II? 

14. What did the French do? In 1809, what did Napoleon do? 
What was the answer of Pius VII? 

15. What decree did the emperor issue? What was the fate of 
the pontiff? When did he return from captivity? 

TURKEY. 

1. From whom do the Turks derive their origin ? In the 8th cen- 
tury, what do we find? Towards the close of the 12th century, what 
took place ? 

2. Previous to this period what had the Turks embraced ? What 
did they do during the reign of this monarch and his successor? 
What project had Bajazet I., formed ? Where did the two chieftains 
meet ? What was the number of the combatants and the number 
slain? 

3. For what was the reign of Amurat II., distinguished? By whom 
was he succeeded? What did he do ? What is said of the inhabi- 
tants ? Of Constantine ? 

4. What did he do ? How did Mahomet stimulate his soldiers? 
On the 29th of May, what took place? What was the fate of Con- 
stantine ? 

5. Into what was the church of St. Sophia converted ? What did 
the public crier do ? 

6. On the fall of Constantinople, what did Mahomet do? What 
was done by his successor ? What is said of Solyman I.? What 
did he take? 

7. How did Mahomet III. commence his reign ? What did Oth- 
man invade? Howdidhedie? What did Amurath IV. take ? Du- 
ring the reign of Mahamet IV., what was done? 

8. What is said of the republic of Venice? For what was the 
reign of Mustapha III., distinguished? During the reign of Selim, 
who invaded Egypt? In 1821, what took place ? 



516 QUESTIONS. 

MODERN GREECE. 

1. In the review of ancient Greece, how far did we pursue its his- 
tory ? What is said of the subsequent history ? Who is regarded as 
the first of the Greek emperors ? 

2 What was he ? By whom was he succeeded?, 

3. In what did Justinian display his greatest wisdom ? What did 
Behsaiius do ? 

4. What is said of the Goths ? What was the general doomed to 
see? By whom was he superseded ? Whom did Narses defeat ? 

5. What is said of Chosroes the Great? Of the Huns ? How 
was the empire saved ? In return, what did he receive? 

6. When did Justinian die? What has his body of laws reflected ? 
From this code, what has been derived? Previous to this time, 
what was necessary ? 

7. By whom was Justinian succeeded? What was he? By whom 
was he governed? What is related of Narses? What did he.do ? 

8. What did the Persians do ? What happened Justin? What 
had he the prudence to do ? On whom did the choice fall ? 

9. What were the words of Justin to Tiberius ? What is said of 
Tiberius ? 

10. What is said of the reign of this prince? What happened 
during one campaign? What did he refuse? What did he order? 
What did the soldiers do ? 

11. At this news, what did Maurice do ? At Chalcedon what is 
related of him? What did he repeat? What is said of the nurse ? 

12. What is said of Phocas ? What did the Senate do ? By whom 
Was the offer embraced ? What was the end of Phocas? 

13. What was the reign of this emperor ? For what is the reign 
of Constantine Pagonatus conspicuous? What was one of the most 
destructive agents ? What is said of it ? 

14. What is said of Justinian II ? In 717, what took place ? 

15. For what is his reign memorable? What is said uf Leo? 
What was the consequence of this order ? On one occasion what did 
he order ? W hen was the affair settled ? What did it decide ? 

16. During the minority of Constantino, who was appointed regent.? 
What was done by her order? What was excited against her? 
What was her fate ? 

17. What is said of Neciphorus? Against whom did Leo march ? 
What was his end ? What is said of the empire during the reign of 
this prince ? 

18. By whom was Theophilus succeeded? What took place du- 
ring his reign ? What was his end? Who succeeded? When did 
he die? 

19. What is said of Neciphorus? What was his fate? Who 
succeeded ? 

20. What is said of this emperor? What was his end ? 

21. After his death, who reigned jointly ? Who exercised the su- 
preme authority ? What did he reduce? When did he die? At the 
time of the Crusades what happened? In 1261, what took place ? 

22. Who were the most distinguished emperors of this period? In 
1453, what took place ? Since that period, what is said ? In 1820, 
what took place ? And on 20th of October, 182S ? What is the 
government chosen for of the country ? Who is the present king ? 



QUESTIONS. 517 

AMERICA. 

Section I. 
■ 1. For several years, to what was the attention of the Portuguese 
directed ? To whom does the honor, &c, belong ? What is said of 
this illustrious man ? Give his character ? 

2. What was now admitted? At what conclusion did Columbus 
arrive ? What did he suppose? What had been taken up? What 
on one occasion ? 

3. Why did he solicit the patronage of Genoa? Where did he 
next apply? Where did he send his brother? 

4. In the meantime what did Columbus do ? At length what did 
he obtain ? What is said of the queen ? By whom was she relieved ? 

5. On the 17th of April, what was done ? What were the names 
of the vessels ? 

6. When did Columbus set sail ? By the 14th of September, 
where was the fleet? Here what was observed? What is said of 
this phenomenon ? 

7. What did Columbus do? What again manifested itself? 
What did they agree? What did he propose, &c? 

S. For some days previous, what had been observed? From these 
what did Columbus conclude and order? What was heard at mid- 
night ? From this moment, what is said ? 

t 9. What did the crew of the Pinta do ? By what was this office, 
&c, followed? As the sun arose, what was done? Who was the 
first to land on the new world ? What did his men do ? What did 
they erect ? What followed ? 

1 0. On landing, what did the Spaniards find ? What is said of the 
natives ? 

11. What was the first land discovered ? What did he afterwards 
discover? What were these islands denominated ? What were the 
aborigines called ? 

12. During the voyage, what happened ? While the storm con- 
tinued, what did Columbus? "Where did he arrive ? How was he 
received ? 

13- In his third voyage, what did Columbus discover? In conse- 
quence of false charges, what was done ? What reply did Columbus 
make to the captain ? 

14. What is said of him on his return to Spain ? What did Fer- 
dinand do ? What did Columbus do during the remainder of his life ? 

15. What did he undertake ? What did he suffer ? When and 
where did he die ? What inscription is placed on his tomb? 

16. From whom did the country receive the name of America ? On 
his return to Spain, what did he publish ? 

17. What did the achievement of Columbus excite ? In 1519, 
what was done? Where did Magellan lose his life? 

18. What did John Cabot do? Who first doubled the Cape of 
Good Hope? What was effected by this? 

19. What laid the foundation of the English claim in North 
America? 

20. At an early period, of what had the Spaniards been apprized ? 
What designs did the governor of Cuba form? When did Cortez 
sail, and with what number of vessels ? What did he cause himself? 

21. What did he then do ? Where did he proceed ? How did he 
enter the city ? 



518 QUESTIONS. 

22. In the meantime what took place ? On receiving this intelli- 
gence, what did Cortez do ? What is said of the Mexicans ? What 
was the fate of Montezuma ? 

23. What did Cortez again do ? What is said of Guatimozin ? 
22. U hat did the Spaniards do? What is said of the prince? 

What was his fate ? 

25. After this what similar expedition was undertaken? In 1531, 
having obtained a commission as governor, what did he do ? 

26. How was the country at that time divided ? What had both 
princes endeavored to obtain? Marching to meet Atabalipa, what 
did Pizarro do ? What did the monarch engage to do, to procure his 
release ? What was his fate ? 

27. What is now said of the country? What prevailed? What 
was the fate of Alrnagro and Pizarro ? In 1548, what took place ? 

28. At the time of the invasion, what is said of the Mexicans and 
Peruvians ? What did they understand ? What did they worship? 
What is said of the religion of the Peruvians ? 

29. What were the Indians in person ? Their complexion ? 
When provoked to anger ? When captured? 

30. What is said of books ? Their language ? Their arts? Their 
agriculture? Their skill in medicine ? 

31. What were the employments of the men ? Of the women ? 
What were their domestic utensils ? What was war ? 

32. What was their government? The religion of the natives ? In 
what did they believe ? What was their chief mode of V\ orship ? 

33. What was marriage among them? What was prevalent? 
How did they treat their wives ? Describe the rights of burial? 

34. What has been a subject of investigation? What is the best 
supported opinion ? 

Section II. 

1. Who were among the first adventurers? In 1524, what was 
done by Frances I ? Who next sailed to the new world ? What was 
the country called ? 

2. In 1584, who arrived in America? On his return what did he 
give? What is said of his attempts to form a settlement? Of the 
colonists ? 

3. In 1602, what took place? In 1606, what was granted by 
James? What was assigned to the former? To the latter? 

4. What did the London company do, in 1607? Where did they 
arrive ? What town did they commence ? 

5. Who was the most distinguished person? In early life what had 
he? 

6. How was the antipathy of the natives to the English occasion- 
ed ? Relate the adventures of Captain Smith? 

7. In 1609, what was concerted ? How was it prevented ? What 
is said of Pocahontas, on a subsequent visit to Jamestown ? To whom 
was she married ? Where did they sail for ? Where did she die ? 

8. From what did they suffer ? What happened during the year 
1609? In consequence of waste of provisions, what followed ? In 
six months, to what was the number reduced? What did they re- 
solve ? How were they prevented ? 

9. What were the planters? With a view of attaching them to 



QUESTION'S. 519 

the settlement, what expedient was devised ? What was the price of 
a wile ? 

10. For what is the year 1620 rendered memorable? In what 
manner? In 1623, what deliberate plan was formed? What took 
place on the 22d of March ? 

1 1 . By what was this followed? When did they fall upon the 
Indians ? 

12. In 1624, what took place? How was the prosperity of the 
colony again retarded? During ihe revolution in England, what is 
said of the colonists? In 1631, what took pi. tee ? 

13. On the death of Mathews, what did the colonists do ? In 
1676, what did the restrictions on trade occasion and give rise ? How 
was it terminated ? 

14. By whom was the territory comprising the middle states set- 
tled ? In 1609, what took place? Where did they build a fort? 
What did they call the settlements ? 

15. Where had the Swedes settled? In 1664, what did Charles do ? 
What did he claim, and to whom did he convey it? What did the 
Duke of York do ! What is said of Stuy vesant ? 

Section III. 

1. In 1607, where was a settlement commenced ? By whom was 
the country visited in 1614 ? On his return what did he do? 

2. In 1620, what was granted ? During the same year what was 
commenced at Plymouth ? 

3. Where had the Puritans taken refuge ? What did they resolve? 

4. On the 22d of July, 16z0, what took place? Where did they 
touch ? What were they finally compelled to do ? When and from 
what place did they sail ? 

5. Where was the Mayflower moored ? On the 20th of Decem- 
ber, what was done ? What is said of the spot ? 

6. What is said of the pilgrims? Of their supply of provisions? 
By these calamities, to what were they reduced? Who was their 
first governor ? 

7. With a desire to conform, &c, what did the pilgrims do? In 
1623, what was each family allowed? In March, 1621, what did 
they receive ? 

S. From him what did they obtain ? In the same month who paid 
a visit to the colony ? 

9. In 1626, what colony was commenced ? What might be sup- 
posed ? 

10. What did some of the colonists retain? What did Endicott 
do ? In 1630, what took place ? At the first general Court at 
Charleston, what law was passed ? 

11. In 1623, what settlement was commenced ? By whom? 
When and by whom was Connecticut commenced ? 

12. What is related of Roger Williams? Two years after this, 
what did Mr. Cadington do ? 

13. In 1644, what did Williams do and obtain? By this instru- 
ment, what was ordered ? Yet what was done by the first assembly ? 

14. What is said of the Indians in the vicinity ? Which were the 
most formidable tribes ? What did the latter request ? What did the 
former do ? 



520 QUESTIONS. 

15 Where had the Pequods pitched their camp? What did the 
colonists do ? Describe the scene that followed ? What was done with 
those who were captured ? 

16. What did their danger induce the colonies to do ? How long did 
this confederation subsist ? To what did they give their earliest at- 
tention ? When was Harvard University formed ? 

17. While thoy claim our admiration, what are we compelled ? In 
1656, what took place? What- law was passed? 

18. In Connecticut what law was passed? Why are these instan- 
ces of intolerance mentioned ? 

19 After the Pequod war, what did New England enjoy ? In 1675 
what took place ? 

20. What is said of Philip ? How was the war conducted ? How 
many fell on both sides in the Swamp fight ? What was the end of 
Philip ? 

21 At the commencement of the war, what is said of the English ? 
What had every family to mourn ? 

22. What took place in 1692 ? What laws were made? 

23. Who was the founder of Maryland ? Why did he remove to 
America ? Where did he next fix his attention ? From whom was 
the country named ? 

24. What happened before the patent was complete? Who was 
appointed governor? When and where did they sail from? \^ hat 
were the names of the vessels? What did they immediately do? 

25. What claim our admiration? What reflects the highest honor 
on Lord Baltimore, &c? What did the Roman Catholics of Mary- 
land do ? 

26. How was the tranquillity of the colony interrupted? What 
was the first act of those who succeeded in the government? What 
were the Calholics doomed to see? 

27. When and by whom was the settlement of Pennsylvania com- 
menced ? What is said of him? What did Petin resolve? 

28. When and where did the first colony arrive? When did Penn 
arrive ? What city did he lay out ? What was his first care ? 

29. What is said of his system of government ? Of what did Penn 
become the proprietor? Where and when did he die? 

30. When and by whom was Delaware settled? In 1651, what 
took place ? 

31. By whom was New Jersey settled? In 1674, what did Lord 
Berkley do ? Who afterwards became the proprietors? 

32 What provinces next claim our attention ? Towards the mid- 
dle of the 17th century, what was done ? In 1663, what did Charles 
grant? 

33. What did the proprietors do ? In 1739, what was done ? What 
was introduced in 1700 ? 

34. Which was the last of the thirteen states? When and by 
whom was the settlement commenced? Of what city did they lay 
the foundation ? 

35. In the year 1736, who arrived ? What is said of Ogleihrope ? 
When did he die ? 

Section IV. 

1. Where had the French made settlements ? What had long been 
a subject of dispute ? What was the object of the French? 



QUESTIONS. 521 

2. What did the governor of Virginia determine ? Whom did he 
select? What was the distance? On his way, what happened? 
When did he reach the fort ? 

3. After this, what was immediately commenced ? Of this regi- 
ment who was appointed Colonel? Where did Washington march? 
What was he informed before he reached the place ? What did he do ? 

4. In 1755, who arrived? What is said of Braddock? What did 
Washington ask ? What did Braddock do ? What was his fate ? 
What is said of Washington ? 

5. What did three campaigns produce? In 1756, what took place? 
What did he address? What was the number of men at the next 
campaign? 

6 What was the first expedition ? What places were taken ? What 
is said if Quebec ? To whom was the duty of reducing it committed? 

7. What design did Wolfe conceive ? What ensued ? What was 
the loss of the French ? What was the fate of Wolfe ? What is relat- 
ed of him before his death ? What is said of Montcalm ? What fol- 
lowed ihe reduction of this city? 

8. What is said of the attachment of the colonies ? Of what were 
they proud? In England, what doctrine prevailed ? 

9. What did the expenses render necessary ? What is said of the 
ministry ? In 1765, what was introduced ? What was the nature of 
this act ? 

10. What did the news of N this measure create? Tn the Assembly of 
Virginia, what was done ? And in Boston ? In the city of New York ? 

11. What did the Colonial Congress publish? What did the mer- 
chants of Boston, &c do ? When was the Stamp act repealed ? In 
1767, what was passed ? By what was this followed? 

12. What frequently occurred? On the 5th of March, 1770, what 
happened ? 

13. By whom was Lord North succeeded? What took place in 
1773 ? How did the people of Boston show their resentment? 

14. What act was immediately passed ? In May of the same year, 
who arrived in Boston? By these proceedings, what did the Ameri- 
cans conclude ? 

15. What agreement was entered into? What was commenced? 
What did the Court of Massachusetts resolve ? By what name is this 
body known ? Who was the first President ? What did they do ? 

16 What was done when the proceedings of Congress was laid 
before Parliament ? In February, what did General Gage do ? 

17. In April, what took place? On the 19th, by whom were 
they met ? What did Major Pitcairn do ? How many of the Ameri- 
cans were killed ? 

18. What did the British Commander attempt to do? What took 
place at the bridge over Concord river? What did the British do? 
How many were killed on both sides ? 

19. For what were the Americans anxious? What did Congress 
immediately ? What was the first expedition ? In May, what arriv- 
ed in Boston ? 

20. For the purpose of driving the British from Boston, what was 
done? How did they prosecute their design? At noon, what took 
place ? What followed ? What was the loss of the British ? Of the 
Americans ? What city was set on fire ? 



522 QUESTIONS. 

21. What did Congress resolve? Who was selected as command- 
er-in-chief? When and where did he join the army ? 

22. What plan was devised? Who was sent to that province? 
What places did Montgomery take ? By whom was he joined? What 
did they resolve? What was the result? 

23. About this time what town was burnt ? In October, what 
happened ? 

24. During the summer of 1775, what is said of the army ? On 
the 4th of March, what was done ? On the 17th, what did General 
Howe do ? 

25. By whom was an attack made on Charleston ? What is said 
of Chatham, Burke and Fox ? What did the ministry obtain ? 

26. For what had the Americans contended? Seeing no alterna- 
tive left, what did they determine? On the 7th of June, what was 
done in Congress? Who were appointed on the committee to pre- 
pare the Declaration ? 

UNITED STATES. 
Section V. 

1. Why should the history of the United States commence from this 
period ? Where did the first battle take place after the Declaration ? 

2. When did the British land ? What followed on the 27th ? Du- 
ring the engagement, what did General Washington do ? 

3. What did Howe think ? What did he send to General Washing- 
ton ? Whom did he send with a message to Congress ? What followed ? 

4. What was done in September ? What took place at White 
Plains ? What fort was shortly* afterwards reduced ? What course 
did Washington take ? 

5. By what was the army under Washington reduced ? Where 
was Lee made prisoner ? 

6. On the 25th of December, what did General Washington do ? 
Where did he then proceed ? In this action who was killed ? Who 
were commissioned to Europe ? 

7. What was done in the spring of 1777? What was the object of 
Howe ? What course did he take ? On the I lth of September what 
Sook place? In this battle, what foreigners served? 

8 After this victory, where did the British proceed ? On the 4th 
of October, what took place? What place did Burgoyne take ? How 
was his progress checked ? 

9. Where did Burgoyne encamp? On the 19th of September, 
what took place ? Finding it impossible to retreat, what was resolv- 
ed ? What was done on the 17th of October ? 

10. What is said of this event? Of the Court of France ? On the 
6th of February, what was done? What did the British ministry do ? 

11. By whom was Howe succeeded? What was determined? 
What did Clinton do? On the 28th of June, what took place ? What 
is said of General Lee ? 

12. In July what arrived ? What was the last transaction of this year? 

13. During this year where was the principal theatre of the war? 
What was done on the 15th of July ? And in October ? In this ac- 
tion who was mortally wounded ? 

14. What was andertaken by Clinton and Cornwallis ? What was 
the result ? 



QUESTIONS. 523 

15. What did General Gates do ? What took place on the 16th of 
August? in this battle, what is said of Baron de Kalb ? In July, 
what arrived at Rhode Island ? 

16. For what is this year distinguished ? Into what negotiation did 
he enter ? 

17. Who was the British agent ? Relate the circumstances of An- 
dre's capture ? What was his fate ? What became of Arnold ? 

18. How was the campaign of this year commenced ? Where and 
by whom was Tarleton defeated ? Where did the two armies again 
meet ? What was the result ? 

19. Tn September, what did Green obtain ? After this battle, where 
did Cornwallis fortify himself? What did General Washington do ? 

20. In the meantime what was done by Clinton ? While Wash- 
ington was on his march to Virginia, what news did he receive ? 
What fleet appeared off" the capes ? What took p'ace. 

21. What now commenced and carried on? What was the num- 
ber of forces that surrendered ? At the news of this event, what did 
Congress do ? 

22. What did Great Britain at length resolve ? What took place 
on the 30th of November? And finally on the 3d of September, 
1783 ? What did the contest cost Great Britain ? 

23. What now was the first step of Congress ? What difficulty 
arose ? How was it quelled ? 

24. On the day previous, what did Washington do ? After this, 
where did he repair ? Where did he retire ? 

25. At the close of the war, what was the government formed to 
be ? What is said of Congress ? What proposition was made in the 
Legislature of Virginia ? What did they determine ? 

26. Agreeable to this, what was done? Who wa3 elected Presi- 
dent? On taking his seat, what did he say? On the 29th of May, 
what was done ? 

27. On the subject of salaries, what did Mr. Wilson observe? 

28. On the morning of the 17th of September, what was done by 
Doctor Franklin ? Who refused to sign the Constitution ? 

29. After four months' deliberation, what was done ? When did it 
become the Constitution, &c? What states rejected it, and when did 
they adopt it ? 

30. By the Constitution, where is all legislative power invested ? 
Who was chosen the first president ? Where did he proceed ? What 
is said of his progress to that city ? 

31. What took place on the 30th of April ? When retired, how did 
he address the houses? Of what did he remind them, &c? 

32 Who was the first vice-president ? Who were the other principal 
officers ? What first distinguished the administration of Washington ? 

33. What duties were laid? In 1790, what did Hamdon do? 
What did Jefferson and Randolph consider ? For how long was the 
bank chartered ? To what did this measure give rise ? 

34. In what was the United States partially involved ? What course 
did the President pursue ? At the expiration of his second term, what 
did Washington do ? By whom was he succeeded ? 

35. During Mr. Adams's administration, what was done? What 
authority was given ? What was the effect of these measures ? 
When and where did General Washington die ? 



524 QUESTIONS. 

36. For several years, what had agitated the country ? What was 
censured by the Republicans ? What is said of many of the measures 
of Mr. Adams ? What acts excited disaffection ? Who was elevated 
to the Presidential chair? 

37. What war eventually succeeded? What was demanded by 
Tripoli? By what was this followed? In 1S02, what took place? 
And in the following year ? When was the war terminated ? What 
were the other evenis of Jefferson's administration ? In 1809, what 
took place ? By whom was he succeeded ? 

Section VI. 

1. During the wars of Europe, what had the United States endeav- 
ored ? In 1806, what did the British government do ? In 'November 
following, what was done ? By what was this followed? What did 
Buonaparte issue ? 

2. At this time, what was laid ? But in 1S09, what took place ? 
What other species of injury and insult arose ? To what was custom 
subject ? 

3. In 1807, what was stated ? What did Captain Humphreys do ? 
What did the Chesapeake do ? What is said of Commodore Bairon ? 

4. What is said of the British Government? Who succeeded 
Mr. Jefferson? In April, what was done? "What is said of Mr. 
Jackson ? fn this state of things ? 

5. In IS I 2, what did the President do? What were the grounds 
for this measure? By what majority did the bill pass the House ? 
And in the Senate ? 

6. What is said of the minority in Congress? What was the first 
military operation ? But on 16th of August, what did he do f W hat 
sentence was pronounced on Hull ? 

7. By whom was a second invasion of Canada attempted? On 
the 19th of August, what took place ? What the loss on each side ? 
What captures were afterwards made? 

S Towards the end of January, what took place? In April? 
And in May? What fort did the Americans take? By what was 
their progress checked? 

9. What was the most brilliant achievement of this year? What 
was the number of vessels in each fleet ? Describe the battle ? After 
this, what was done b\ Gen. Harrison ? In th s battle, who was killed ? 

10. Where did Gen. Wilkinson make an attack ? \\ hat is said of 
the British fleet ? In February, what took place ? And in the course 
of the summer ? 

11. For what was the campaign of this year distinguished? On 
the 12th of July, what was done ? And on the 25th ? And in Sep- 
tember ? What was the loss on each side ? 

12. In the month of August, what was done? What took place 
at Bladensburg? What was done by the militia? What is said of 
Barney ? V\ hat places did they burn ? 

13. On what city was an attack made? On 12th of September, 
what was done? What was the fate of Gen. Ross? What did Gen. 
Strieker do ? In the mean time, what assault was made ? 

14. When and where was the treaty of peace signed ? While this 
was in progress, what city was attacked? What was fortunate for 
the city ? 



QUESTIONS. 525 

15. What is said of the British? What took place on the 8th of 
January ? What was the Joss on both sides? 

16. What is said of the treaty of Ghent? What does Mr. Grim- 
shavv observe? 

17. By whom was Madison succeeded ? Who succeeded in 1825 ? 
For what is this year rendered memorable? When and where did 
Adams and Jefferson die? 

18. In 1829, what took place? To what d'd he call the afention 
of Congress? In 1832, what passed? V\ hat is said of the bill? 
By whom was Jackson succeeded ? By what was his administration 
distinguished? 

19. On the 4th of March, what took place? When did he die? 
What was done in consequence? 

CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 
Section 1. 

1. What period does this history embrace? How does the first 
division extend ? The second ? Thethitd? 

2. When and where was Jesus Christ born ? At that time what 
prevailed? What were the Jews anxiously expeaing? But what 
did they imagine ? 

3. What is said of the Pharisees? What did they affect? What 
is not surprising? V\ hat was the place of his nativity ? What was 
Joseph ? What was Mary ? 

4. What is said of our divine Saviour ? What had he chosen ? Tn 
what words did he commission the twelve Apostles ? 

5. What did the Apostles do ? How many were converted by the 
first sermon of St Peter? What followed? Who fell a sacrifice to 
their fury ? Who was the most active of the persecutors ? On the 
road to Damascus, what happened to him? By whom was he bap- 
tized ? What name did he assume? 

6. In the mean time, what d,d the twelve Apostles do ? How did 
they confirm the doctrine they taught ? What is said of the rapidity 
with which Christianity was propagated? 

7. What is said of this rapid success? What is further observed 
in this paragraph ? 

8. In a few years, what do we find ? What places did St. Peter 
visit ? When did he visit Rome ? W hat is said of St. Paul ? V\ hat 
places did he pass through ? Where did he finally direct his course? 

9. What did a misguided zeal lead many of the Jewish converts- 
to propose? How was the affair settled ? Who opened the discus- 
sion, and who concluded the debate ? 

10. In this council what was established ? What is observed about it ? 

11. After the death of Festus. what followed ? Who fell a victim to 
their fury? Relate the circumstances of his death ? 

12. Wh ) first armed the sovereign power against the Christians? 
What did he do ? On whom did he throw the odium ? What did he 
publish ? How were some put to death? W T ho were the most dis- 
tinguished ? 

7 3. ^ hen did the second persecution commence? W T ho wa> the 
most illustrious sufferer ? Where did he res.de, and to what was he 
condemned? How did he come iorth fruna the caldron? Where 



526 QUESTIONS. 

was he banished ? At this early period, what had the church ? Of 
these, who were the most conspicuous? To silence them, what did 
St John do ? 

14. When did the third persecution commence? What does the 
younger Pliny say of the Christians? Who were the most illustrious 
of the sufferers ? 

15. When was the fourth persecution commenced, and who suf- 
fered ? When did the fifth persecution commence ? What edict was 
published ? 

16. When was the sixth persecution commenced ? Against whom 
did he direct his malice? When was the seventh persecution pub- 
lished? What were the modes of torture? Who were the most 
distinguished sufferers? What did Valerian publish on the eve of 
his expedition against Persia ? Who suffered on this occasion ? 

17. To gratify the people of Rome, what did Aurelian do ? When 
did the tenth persecution take place? For some time what did he 
reject ? At length, what did he publish? What is said of the perse- 
cution in Britain ? 

18. At this period, what are we called to look for ? What is said of 
Constantine ? What was his first care, and what did he publish? 
To break the force of prejudice, what did he conclude ? 

19. To remedy the evils &c. , what did he do? To the bishop of 
Rome, what did he grant? What is observed of the Church? 

Section II. 

1. What is-said of Christianity under the protection of Constan- 
tine ? What arose ? What did the people do ? 

35. What is said of Anus? What did he deny and assert ? In 
order to check the progress of error, what was done 1 When and 
where did it meet 1 Of what was it composed % Who presided 1 
How were the opinions of Arius condemned 1 What was fixed 
and directed 1 Before the council separated, what was done 1 

3. What is said of Arianism ? Of Constantius ? Under Theo- 
dosius the Greatj what took place ? When was the second council 
convened? 

4. Of what did this council consist? What did the Macedon- 
ians maintain and deny ? What did the fathers of'this council 
declare ? Who are among the persons most distinguished for their 
learning, &c. ? 

5. As the Arian heresy declined, what schism arose? What is 
said of Donatus ? To schism what did they add and assert? What 
did they denounce ? After the great conference at Carthage, what 
do we find ? 

6. What is said of Pelagius ? What did he deny, reject, &c. ? 
By whom were these errors condemned and refuted ? 

7. About the year 428, what took place ? What was Nestorius .? 
What did he teach? Hence, what did be deny and assert? Where 
was this strange doctrine first delivered, and what followed ? 

8. When and why was the fourth general council held ? What 
did Eutychus admit and maintain? When and where was the 
fifth general council held? 

9. In the present instance, what do we find? What is said of 
Leo? When was the seventh general council held? By whom 
Was it attended ? What did they unanimously declare ? 



QUESTIONS. 527 

10. In 866, what took place? What did he at length pro- 
nounce ? On the accession of Leo, what is said of Photius ? By 
whom, and when was the Greek schism completed? 

11. What did St. Leo do ? What did Michael assume, publish 
and deny ? 

12. What is said of Beregarius? In 1079, what took place? 
What did Beregarius solemnly do ? What is generally believed r 

13. From an early period, what had been the custom ? Why 
did the sovereign pontififdeclaim against it? When was the affair 
finally settled ? 

14. By what was the peace of the Church interrupted ? On the 
death of Honorius, what took place ? What striking circumstance 
is mentioned ? 

15. What was done among the pontificate of Gregory IX.? 
When was it finally accomplished ? On the death of Michael, 
what was done by his son ? 

16. Who succeeded Gregory XL ? To what did his zeal carry 
him? Retiring from Rome, what did the cardinals? What is 
said of Urban ? 

17. In 1385, what touk place? What is said of Wickliffe? 
What did he maintain ? By what name were his followers known ? 

18. Why was the council of Constance called ? What was pro- 
posed ? What is said of Gregory and John ? Of Benedict ? Who 
was elected by the council? 

19. What is said of the writings of Wickliffe ? Being cited be- 
fore the council, what did he do? Why was he sent to the Dom- 
inican Convent ? Of what was he convicted ? What punishment 
was inflicted by the Germanic law? When did Huss suffer? 
Who else was condemned? 

. 20. In 1439, what took place ? What decree was made out, and 
by whom was it signed? What did this event afford? In 1452, 
what took place? 

Section III. 

1. How was the bishop of Rcme often. compelled to act ? What 
did thev enjoy ? 

2. Who was called to fill the pontifical chair? What design 
had his predecessor formed? What did Leo resolve and publish ? 
What is an indulgence? 

3. In the publication of these indulgences, what are alledged ? 
On similar occasions, who were appointed ? Who was the most 
conspicuous &c? In the warmth of his invectives, what did Luther 
do? 

4. In the meantime, what took place? In 1520, what did Leo 
publish ? What did Luther at first determine ? What did he pub- 
licly do ? 

5. What is said of the people ? Where did Luther retire ? 
What did he reject ? 

6. In 1521. what was done ? What is said of Luther, before this 
assembly? What was passed ? 

7. How had the Reformation spread ? In 1530, what was pub- 
lished? For what is the following year distinguished? How 
was'the appellation of Protestant acquired t ? 

8- At the diet of Augsburg, what did the princes pledge them- 
selves ? When was the council of Trent convoked and concluded? 
In the meantime, what was concluded at Passau? 



528 , QUESTIONS. 

9. Who bore a prominent part with Luther? What is said of 
Henry VIII of England? Of Scotland ? 

10. What did the church of Rome behold ? Who was the found- 
er of ihis order? What was done on the 15th of August? And 
in the year 1534? What did the pontiff do? What mark the spi- 
rit of the institution of Ignatius ? 

11. What is enjoined as a sacred duty on the members of this 
order? What is said of St. Francis Xavier ? When did he die? 
What is said of the fruit of his labor? By whom was a similar 
mission undertaken in S. America? 

12. How do the Reformed churches differ ? 

GtUESTIONS ON THE CONSTITUTION, 

ARTICLE I. 

Section I. 

I. In what are all legislative powers vested ? 

Section II. 

1. Of what shall the house of representatives be composed ? 

2. What must be the age of a representative? 

3. How shall representative and direct taxes be apportioned? 

4. When vacancies happen, how are they filled ? 

5. What shall the house of representatives choose and have ? 

Section III. 
1. Of what shall the senate be composed? 2. Into how many 
classes shall they be divided? How shall their seats be vacated ? 
3. What must be the senator's age? 4. .Who is the president of 
senate? 5- What shall the senate choose? 6. What power shall 
the senate have ? When the President of the U. S. is tried, who 
shall preside? 1. What shall judgment be in cases of impeachment? 

Section IV. 
• 1. What shall be proscribed? What may Congress do? 2, 
How often and when shall Congress assemble ? 

Section V. 
1. What shall each house be ? What mav a smaller number do ? 
2. What may each house determine? 3. What shall each house 
keep ? 4. What shall neither house do ? 

Section VI. 
1. What shall the senators and representatives receive ? From 
what shall they be privileged ? 2. What shall no senator or repre- 
sentative be ? 

Section VII. 

L Where shall all bills originate ? 2. What shall every bill be* 
fore it becomes a law, receive ? In what cases shall a bill become 
a law, without the signatu re of the President ? 3. To whom shall 
every order &c. be presented ? 

Section VIII. 
What shall Congress have power to do ? 



QUESTIONS. 

Section IX. 
1. What shall not be prohibited? What may be imposed! 2 
Wha. shall not be suspended ? 3. What shall noi be passed? 4. 
What shall not be laid ? 5. On what shall no duty be laid ? And 
no preference given, &c. ? t5. What is said of money ? 7. What 
shall not be granted ? And what shall no person &c. accept? 

Section X. 
1. What shall no state do ? 2. What shall no state lay ? 

ARTICLE II. 

Section I. 

In whom shall the executive power be vested ? Flow long shall 
he hold his office ? What shall each state do? {For No. 3, see 
amendments.) 4. What shall Congress determine ? 5. Who shall 
be eligible to the office of president ? What must his age be ? 6. 
In case of the removal of the President from office, on whom shall 
the same devolve ? 7. What shall the President receive ? 9. 
What is the President's oath ? 

Section II. 
1. Who is the commander-in-chief of the army &c. ? What 
power shall he have ? 2. What power shall he have with the ad- 
vice of the senate ? 3. What power has the President ? 

Section III. 

1. What shall he give ? What may he do ? What shall he 
take care of? 

Section IV. 
In what cases may the President &c. be removed from office? 

ARTICLE III. 
Section I. 

1. In what shall the judicial power be vested ? How long shall 
they hold their offices ? 

Section II. 

1. To what shall the judicial power extend? 2. In what cases 
shall the supreme court have original jurisdiction ? 3. How shall 
the trial of all crimes, except &c. be? Where shall they be held ? 

Section III. 

1. In what shal\ treason against the U. S. consist? 2. What 
power shall Congress have ? 

ARTICLE IV. 

Section I. 

1. What shall be given to each state ? What may Congress pro- 
scribe ? 

Section II. 

1. To what shall the citizens of each state be entitled ? 2. What is 
said of a person charged with treason &c ? 3. What is said of a 
person held to service in one state escaping into another ? 



530 QUESTIONS. 

Section III. 

1. What is said of new states ? 2. What power shall Congress 
have ? 

Section IV- 

1. What shall the U. S. guaranty to every state in this Union ? 

ARTICLE V. 

What provisions are made with regard to amendments of the 
Constitution ? 

ARTICLE VI. 

1. What is said of debts contracted before the adoption of this 
Constitution ? 2. What shall be the law of the land ? 3. By what 
shall senators, representatives, &c, be bound ? What shall not be 
required ? 

•AMENDMENTS. 

Art. 1. Against what shall Congress make no law I Or prohibit? 

Art. 2. Wnat shall not be infringed ? 

Art. 3. Where shall no soldier be quartered ? 

Art. 4. What shall not be violated ? In what cases may a war- 
rant be issued ? 

Art. 5. What is said of a person held to answer for a crime ? 

Art. 6. In all cases, what shall the accused enjoy? 

Art. 7. In suits at common law &c, what shall be preserved i 

Art. 8, What shall not be required ? 

Art. 9. What shall not be construed to deny &c. ? , 

Art. 10. What are reserved to the states respectively ? 

Art. 11. How shall the judicial power of the U. S. not be con- 
strued ? 

Art. 12. 1. Where shall the electors meet? How shall they 
proceed in the election ? Who shall be president ? If 
no person shall have a majority of the whole number 
of electors appointed, what then shall be done ? 2. W ho 
shall be vice president ? If n o person have a major- 
ity, what shall be done ? 3. Can a person be vice 
president, who is not eligible as president ? 



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